CONCLUSION
Ibn H...azm, who revived the Z.āhirī s chool in the fifth/eleventh century in Andalusia, faced severe reaction from his contemporary ‘ulamā ’ and rulers, who considered the Z.āhirī school as an intruding one, for they had already followed the Mālikī school. His motive for propagating and defending this school, which he considers the right one, is political and religious. Political, because, as a pro-Umayyad, he intends to keep the Umayyad caliphate from losing its control in Andalusia. Religious, because he intends to bring the people of Andalusia in general, and its ‘ulamā ’ and rulers in particular, back to the pure Islamic teaching. He believes that the political instability and the corruption in the country are due to the people’s deviation from and violation of the nas.s., i.e., the Qur‘ān and the Sunnah of the Prophet. Because Ibn H.azm believes that politics and religion are inseparable, he confines himself to teaching people the Z.āhirī fiqh to achieve his goal.
Ibn H.azm insists upon the total agreement of Muslims for the occurrence of ijmā ‘. Due to the existence of natural and inherent disagreements and divergences in the human kind, Ibn H.azm insists on nas.s. as the only basis of ijmā‘, for no Muslim should deny its authority. The ijmā‘ maintained by Ibn H.azm is that of the s.ah.ābah in its broad meaning. It comprises two types: a) ijmā‘ on what is known in religion by necessity, like the injunction of five-daily prayers, and b) ijmā‘ of the s.ah.ābah in its narrow meaning, i.e., on what the s.ah.ābah witnessed and heard from the Prophet, like the tax he imposed on the Jews of Khaybar. However, the ‘ulamā’ en masse do not consider this ijmā‘ as such, for it is not more than the transmission of the nas.s. by the s.ah.ābah from the Prophet to their following generation.
Although to some extent there is a similarity of view on ijmā‘ between Ibn H.azm and al-Naz.z.ām as well as al-T.ūsī, this similarity is merely accidental, caused by different motivations and backgrounds. Ibn H.azm, al-Naz.z.ām and al-T.ūsī belong to the Z.āhirī school of law, the Mu‘tazilī school of theology, and the Shī‘ah sect respectively. However, we know that the Mu‘tazilah and the Shī‘ah have similar view on the createdness of the Qur’ān as well as on the names and attributes of Allah.
Basing ijmā‘ on nas.s. alone, i.e., the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, Ibn H.azm asserts that, like the Qur’ān, the Sunnah of the Prophet is also a wah.y and preserved by Allah. The loss of the Sunnah, mutawātir as well as āh.ād, would cause the destruction of religion, because Sunnah provides us with essential details on Allah’s statements and instructions in the Qur’ān for human beings. However, Ibn H.azm maintains that unlike the Qur’ān, the Sunnah is not an established text in the Scripture, and contains no miracle in its structure.
Unlike to opinion of the majority of ‘ulamā’ in accepting khabar al-wāh.id as probable evidence Ibn H.azm considers it as convincing evidence, provided that it was reported by a reliable transmitter, who traced his hearing to the Prophet through reliable transmitters. Ibn H.azm does not accept the validity of z.ann in religion, because he asserts that z.ann is other than the truth and is prohibited by Allah.
Contrary to the opinion of the majority of ‘ulamā’, Ibn H.azm does not accept the taqrīr of the Prophet as h.ujjah, because he contends that whatever the Prophet did not disapprove of is permissible. The Prophet’s fi‘l is considered as mandūb and uswah for Muslims, unless there is an indication of its being wājib, like his execution of a certain injunction. It is the qawl of the Prophet which is accepted by Ibn H.azm as a h.ujjah by itself, while the majority of ‘ulamā’ consider qawl, fi‘l, and taqrīr of the Prophet together as h.ujjah.
Qiyās is rejected by Ibn H.azm as one of the sources of Islamic law or as sanad of ijmā‘, for he considers it as an innovation and superfluous to religion. He maintains that whatever Allah does not state as something enjoined or prohibited is permissible, and as Allah has perfected the religion of Islam, any law based on other than nas.s., is to be rejected. The existence of an ‘illah upon which qiyās is based, is rejected by Ibn H.azm.
Although al-T.ūsī and al-Naz.z.ām share the view of Ibn H.azm in rejecting qiyās, they differ in their solving an emerging issue, which is usually solved by the majority of ‘ulamā’ by applying qiyās. Ibn H.azm will exercise ijtihād to find its legal judgement based on nas.s.. If he does not find any dalīl in the nas.s., the issue is considered permissible, which is the basic legal judgement of everything. Al-T.ūsī will try to find the opinion of the hidden imām on the issue. But if it is still unknown, it will be revealed in the ijmā‘ of the ‘ulamā’ of the Shī‘ah. If no agreement has been reached, the opinion of the imām will be with one which has dalālah from the nas.s.. If no dalālah is available, the opinion of those who are unknown in person and by lineage is with that of the imām. If the groups of disagreeing ‘ulamā’ consist of both known and unknown ‘ulamā’, the opinion of any group is accepted. Although the opinion of the imām is not with any of the disagreeing groups, their opinions are permitted. Otherwise, if they are not permitted, the imām should not remain silent any longer. The opinion of al-Naz.z.ām on this issue is unknown. However, he accepts the statements of the hidden imām as h.ujjah, as asserted by al-Shahrastānī.
Other than the ijmā‘ which he advocates, i.e., ijmā‘ of the s.ah.ābah based on nas.s., Ibn H.azm rejects ijmā‘ and its authority. Dealing with ijmā‘ of the people of Madīnah, he asserts that ijmā‘ of the people of Makkah is more deserving of acceptance than that of Madīnah, if the ijmā‘ of the people of Madīnah should be accepted. Moreover, Ibn H.azm protests that there were hypocrites and Rawāfid. in Madīnah. Asserting the occurrence of ijmā‘ merely because no challenge is known is also rejected by Ibn H.azm. For him, the absence of challenge in ijmā‘ does not necessarily indicate one’s agreement, but it may indicate his fear. Furthermore, a challenge might not reach the ‘ulamā’ in their ijmā‘, so that they assume its absence. Ibn H.azm reminds his opponents of the existence of ‘ulamā’ among jinn whose agreement or challenge has never been known to them. Knowing the opinions of all the ‘ulamā’ of Islam is impossible due to their greatness in number, except those of the s.ah.ābah before they scattered to different points outside Madīnah. Like the opinion of the majority of ‘ulamā’, Ibn H.azm also rejects ijmā‘ with one challenge. The idea that a single challenge must be shudhūdh is rejected by Ibn H.azm, for the truth might be with the single challenger. The shudhūdh which is intended in the h.adīth cited by his opponents, if that h.adīth should be accepted, is understood by him to be “disagreeing with the truth.” But he doubts the soundness of that h.adīth as well as another h.adīth which orders the believers to follow the jamā‘ah cited by his opponents. However, he contends that the jamā‘ah intended in the h.adīth is jamā‘atu’l-h.aqq. In its general meaning, jamā‘atu’l-h.aqq denotes the Muslim community as the opposite of the non-Muslim community. In its particular meaning, it means any group among the Muslim community who follow the Qur’ān and h.adīths of the Prophet in contrast to Muslim heretics and those who follow fabricated h.adīths.
To what extent is the Z.āhirīsm of Ibn H.azm similar to that of its founder, Abū Sulaymān Dāwūd, is beyond the scope of this study. However, we know that Ibn H.azm follows Dāwūd in rejecting qiyās, ra’y, istih.sān, and taqlīd, and in accepting the ijmā‘ of the s.ah.ābah. This type of ijmā‘ which is considered the third source of Islamic law, is of minor importance. His opponents do not even consider it as ijmā‘, but rather as the nas.s. itself. The dalīl, the fourth source of Islamic law in the Z.āhirī school, is considered by Ibn H.azm’s opponents as qiyās in disguise, although it is also based on nas.s.. In this instance we may say that Ibn H.azm, as a Z.āhirī, sticks to the nas.s. alone. In one of his poems he said: “I will not incline towards any opinion in religion; nay, the Qur’ān and the Sunan [of the Prophet] suffice me,” as we have cited on the front page of this book.
Wednesday, January 25, 2012
IBN H.AZM'S CONCEPT OF IJMA'. GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
‘adālah, honesty, honourable record
‘adl, (pl. ‘udūl), an honest man, a person with an honourable record
ā h.ād (khabaru’l-wāh.id), a h.adīth (tradition) reported by one chain of authority
ah.kām, (sing. h.ukm), laws, legal judgements.
‘ālim (pr. ‘ulamā’), a scholar, a learned man, a savant
amīr (pl. umarā’), an emir, a ruler
Andalūsia, al-Andalus, Muslim Spain
arjah., preponderant
asbāb al-nuzūl (sing. sabab al-nuzūl, see below)
as.l (pl. us.ūl), basis, principle, theory (of divine law)
‘awām, laymen
bāt.in, an inner or secret meaning
Bāt.inīyah, seekers of the inner or spiritual meaning of the nas.s..
Bay‘ah, the pledge of allegiance
bayt al-māl, public treasury
d.a‘īf, weak
dalālah, indication
dalīl, prove, evidence
dhikr, a reminder; it also means remembering and mentioning, which is a technical term for the ritual recitations of the dervishes and their services
fād.il (pl. fud.ūl), eminent
faqīh (pl. fuqahā’), a jurisprudent, a jurist whose professional interest is in fiqh
far‘ (pl. furū ‘), branch, section, positive or substantive law
fard., command, an incumbent duty of religion the performance of which is obligatory
fatāwá (sing. fat wá, futwá, or futyā ), the formal legal opinions of a canon lawyer (in matters of ‘ibādāt and ah.kām)
. fat wá (see fatāwá above)
fiqh, jurisprudence in Islam
fitan, (sing. fitnah), dissension, civil strife, discord
fitnah, (see fitan above)
fud.ūl (see. fād.il above)
fuqah ā ’ (see faqīh above)
furū‘, (see far‘ above)
fut wá, (see. fatā wá above)
fut y ā , (see. fatā wá above)
h.add, fixed punishment; punishment indicated in the na s. s.
h.adīth, news, a story, and finally a technical term for the tradition of what he Prophet said, did, or approved
h.ajj, pilgrimage (to Makkah)
h.arām, prohibited, forbidden, unlawful, sinful
h.ujjah, proof, evidence
h.ujjah z.annīyah (probable evidence).
h.ukm, (pl. ah.kām), legal judgement, law
‘ibādāt (sing. ‘ibādah) , acts of devotion, religious observances
ijmā‘, the consensus of the Muslim community
ijtihād, independent judgement in a legal question, based upon the interpretation and application of the Qur‘ān and the Sunnah
‘illah, cause, reason
Imām, leader. It is used in a general sense, e.g., the leader in prayer, and in the particular sense of a community leader. Among the Shī‘ah the imāms take the place that the caliphs have among the Sunnī Muslims
Imāmah, leadership
īmān, faith, belief
istih.sān, preference, the application of discretion in a legal judgement
istithnā’, exception
i‘tiqādāt, articles of religious faith or practice
Jāhiliyyah, pre-Islamic paganism, (lit. state of ignorance)
jamā‘ah (pl. jamā‘āt), group, community
jamā‘āt (see jama‘ah above)
jamā‘ātu‘l-h.aqq, the community of the truth. It is used by Ibn H.azm in a general sense as the Muslism community, and in the particular sense of the followers of the Qur’ān and the genuine H...adīth
jinn, demons, genii, intelligent creatures of air and fire
jumhūr, mass
jumhūr al-‘ulamā’ , the ‘ulamā’ en masse (in the mass)
kalālah, a deceased person who has neither parents nor children to give his inheritance to
khabar, news, report
khabar khās.s.ah, a special report
khabar al-wāh.id (āh.ād ), a h.adīth reported by one chain of transmitters
khabar al-tawātur (mutawātir), a h.adīth handed down by many chains of unimpeachable transmitters
khalaf, the tābi‘ūn and other generations
khalīfah, caliph
khamr, intoxicant, wine, liquor
khawās.s., the élite who know the inner meaning of the nas.s.
khut.bah, sermon, especially the Friday sermon
kitāb, document, message
kufr, infidelity
kunyah, the name consisting of Abū (Father) or Umm (mother) followed usually by the name of the eldest son or daughter
madhhab, a school of law among Sunnī Muslims
ma‘dhūr, excused
madhmūm, reprehensible
mah.mūd, praised
ma’jūr, rewarded
ma‘lūm bi’l-d.arūrah, known by necessity
mamdūh., laudable
mandūb, recommended
mansūkh, abrogated
matn, text, the subject-matter of a h.adīth
mawlá, , client
minbar, pulpit
muh.kamah (pl. muh.kamāt), precise, clear verse of the Qur’ān
mujmal, a word which needs explanation taken from another one; what is implied in general terms or expressed by implication
mujtahid (pl. mujtahidīn), a legist who exercises ijtihād
mujtahidīn, (see mujtahid above)
munkar, reprehensible action
mutakallimīn (sing. mutakallim), Muslim theologians
mutashābihāt (sing. mutashābih), ambiguous verses of the Qur’ān
mutawātir, (see khabar al-tawātur above)
nadb, recommending
naqd, critique
nāsikh, abrogative
nas.s., the divine text
qād.ī, judge
qiyās, analogy, especially in jurisprudence
rak‘ah (pl. raka‘āt), unit in prayer, bowing
rasūl, messenger
ra’y, personal opinion
sabab al-nuzūl, the occasion on which the verse was revealed
s.ah.ābah, (sing. s.ah.ābī), companions of the Prophet
s.ah.ābī, (see s.ah.ābah above)
salaf, the first generation of the s.ah.ābah
s.alāh, prayer
sanad, chain of narration
shādhdh, deviating
sharī‘ah (pl. sharā’i‘), the canonical law of Islam; the body of regulations which makes up the religious law
shaykh, old man, leader of a tribe or a group, master, a title of respect
shubhah, judicial error
shudhūdh, deviation
sirriyyah, detachment
Sunnah (pl. sunan), properly a custom or practice, and later narrowed down to the practice of the Prophet or a h.adīth recording the same. Sunnah includes the Prophet’s sayings, deeds and tacit approval. In this respect often synonymous with adīth . Sunnah also means meritorious.
sūrah, a chapter or a section of the Qur’ān
tābi‘ī (pl. tābi‘īn), a person succeeding the generation of the s.ah.ābah
tābi‘ī tābi‘īn, the following of the following generation of the s.ah.ābah
tablīgh, conveyance of the message, religious instruction
tafsīr, commentary of the Qur’ān
t.ā’ifah, group, band, party
takhs.īs., specification
taqlīd, decision based on the authority of preceding generations
ta’wīl, interpretation, inner meaning
tawqīf, the teaching of the Prophet
ta‘zīr, discretionary punishment
thiqah (thiqāt), reliable authority
‘udūl, (see ‘adl above)
‘ulamā’, (see ‘ālim above)
ūlī ’l-amr, those who are in autority
umarā’, (see amīr above)
ummah, nation, people, party, community
ummu’l-walad, a slave-girl who has borne her master a child
us.ūl, (see as.l above)
uswah, model
wājib, obligatory
wazīr, vizier, minister
wud.ū’, ablution, the lesser cleansing necessary before prayers
yaqīn, certitude
z.āhir, apparent state of a thing
z.akāh, alms tax
z.ann, doubt, conjecture, uncertainty (in religion)
‘adālah, honesty, honourable record
‘adl, (pl. ‘udūl), an honest man, a person with an honourable record
ā h.ād (khabaru’l-wāh.id), a h.adīth (tradition) reported by one chain of authority
ah.kām, (sing. h.ukm), laws, legal judgements.
‘ālim (pr. ‘ulamā’), a scholar, a learned man, a savant
amīr (pl. umarā’), an emir, a ruler
Andalūsia, al-Andalus, Muslim Spain
arjah., preponderant
asbāb al-nuzūl (sing. sabab al-nuzūl, see below)
as.l (pl. us.ūl), basis, principle, theory (of divine law)
‘awām, laymen
bāt.in, an inner or secret meaning
Bāt.inīyah, seekers of the inner or spiritual meaning of the nas.s..
Bay‘ah, the pledge of allegiance
bayt al-māl, public treasury
d.a‘īf, weak
dalālah, indication
dalīl, prove, evidence
dhikr, a reminder; it also means remembering and mentioning, which is a technical term for the ritual recitations of the dervishes and their services
fād.il (pl. fud.ūl), eminent
faqīh (pl. fuqahā’), a jurisprudent, a jurist whose professional interest is in fiqh
far‘ (pl. furū ‘), branch, section, positive or substantive law
fard., command, an incumbent duty of religion the performance of which is obligatory
fatāwá (sing. fat wá, futwá, or futyā ), the formal legal opinions of a canon lawyer (in matters of ‘ibādāt and ah.kām)
. fat wá (see fatāwá above)
fiqh, jurisprudence in Islam
fitan, (sing. fitnah), dissension, civil strife, discord
fitnah, (see fitan above)
fud.ūl (see. fād.il above)
fuqah ā ’ (see faqīh above)
furū‘, (see far‘ above)
fut wá, (see. fatā wá above)
fut y ā , (see. fatā wá above)
h.add, fixed punishment; punishment indicated in the na s. s.
h.adīth, news, a story, and finally a technical term for the tradition of what he Prophet said, did, or approved
h.ajj, pilgrimage (to Makkah)
h.arām, prohibited, forbidden, unlawful, sinful
h.ujjah, proof, evidence
h.ujjah z.annīyah (probable evidence).
h.ukm, (pl. ah.kām), legal judgement, law
‘ibādāt (sing. ‘ibādah) , acts of devotion, religious observances
ijmā‘, the consensus of the Muslim community
ijtihād, independent judgement in a legal question, based upon the interpretation and application of the Qur‘ān and the Sunnah
‘illah, cause, reason
Imām, leader. It is used in a general sense, e.g., the leader in prayer, and in the particular sense of a community leader. Among the Shī‘ah the imāms take the place that the caliphs have among the Sunnī Muslims
Imāmah, leadership
īmān, faith, belief
istih.sān, preference, the application of discretion in a legal judgement
istithnā’, exception
i‘tiqādāt, articles of religious faith or practice
Jāhiliyyah, pre-Islamic paganism, (lit. state of ignorance)
jamā‘ah (pl. jamā‘āt), group, community
jamā‘āt (see jama‘ah above)
jamā‘ātu‘l-h.aqq, the community of the truth. It is used by Ibn H.azm in a general sense as the Muslism community, and in the particular sense of the followers of the Qur’ān and the genuine H...adīth
jinn, demons, genii, intelligent creatures of air and fire
jumhūr, mass
jumhūr al-‘ulamā’ , the ‘ulamā’ en masse (in the mass)
kalālah, a deceased person who has neither parents nor children to give his inheritance to
khabar, news, report
khabar khās.s.ah, a special report
khabar al-wāh.id (āh.ād ), a h.adīth reported by one chain of transmitters
khabar al-tawātur (mutawātir), a h.adīth handed down by many chains of unimpeachable transmitters
khalaf, the tābi‘ūn and other generations
khalīfah, caliph
khamr, intoxicant, wine, liquor
khawās.s., the élite who know the inner meaning of the nas.s.
khut.bah, sermon, especially the Friday sermon
kitāb, document, message
kufr, infidelity
kunyah, the name consisting of Abū (Father) or Umm (mother) followed usually by the name of the eldest son or daughter
madhhab, a school of law among Sunnī Muslims
ma‘dhūr, excused
madhmūm, reprehensible
mah.mūd, praised
ma’jūr, rewarded
ma‘lūm bi’l-d.arūrah, known by necessity
mamdūh., laudable
mandūb, recommended
mansūkh, abrogated
matn, text, the subject-matter of a h.adīth
mawlá, , client
minbar, pulpit
muh.kamah (pl. muh.kamāt), precise, clear verse of the Qur’ān
mujmal, a word which needs explanation taken from another one; what is implied in general terms or expressed by implication
mujtahid (pl. mujtahidīn), a legist who exercises ijtihād
mujtahidīn, (see mujtahid above)
munkar, reprehensible action
mutakallimīn (sing. mutakallim), Muslim theologians
mutashābihāt (sing. mutashābih), ambiguous verses of the Qur’ān
mutawātir, (see khabar al-tawātur above)
nadb, recommending
naqd, critique
nāsikh, abrogative
nas.s., the divine text
qād.ī, judge
qiyās, analogy, especially in jurisprudence
rak‘ah (pl. raka‘āt), unit in prayer, bowing
rasūl, messenger
ra’y, personal opinion
sabab al-nuzūl, the occasion on which the verse was revealed
s.ah.ābah, (sing. s.ah.ābī), companions of the Prophet
s.ah.ābī, (see s.ah.ābah above)
salaf, the first generation of the s.ah.ābah
s.alāh, prayer
sanad, chain of narration
shādhdh, deviating
sharī‘ah (pl. sharā’i‘), the canonical law of Islam; the body of regulations which makes up the religious law
shaykh, old man, leader of a tribe or a group, master, a title of respect
shubhah, judicial error
shudhūdh, deviation
sirriyyah, detachment
Sunnah (pl. sunan), properly a custom or practice, and later narrowed down to the practice of the Prophet or a h.adīth recording the same. Sunnah includes the Prophet’s sayings, deeds and tacit approval. In this respect often synonymous with adīth . Sunnah also means meritorious.
sūrah, a chapter or a section of the Qur’ān
tābi‘ī (pl. tābi‘īn), a person succeeding the generation of the s.ah.ābah
tābi‘ī tābi‘īn, the following of the following generation of the s.ah.ābah
tablīgh, conveyance of the message, religious instruction
tafsīr, commentary of the Qur’ān
t.ā’ifah, group, band, party
takhs.īs., specification
taqlīd, decision based on the authority of preceding generations
ta’wīl, interpretation, inner meaning
tawqīf, the teaching of the Prophet
ta‘zīr, discretionary punishment
thiqah (thiqāt), reliable authority
‘udūl, (see ‘adl above)
‘ulamā’, (see ‘ālim above)
ūlī ’l-amr, those who are in autority
umarā’, (see amīr above)
ummah, nation, people, party, community
ummu’l-walad, a slave-girl who has borne her master a child
us.ūl, (see as.l above)
uswah, model
wājib, obligatory
wazīr, vizier, minister
wud.ū’, ablution, the lesser cleansing necessary before prayers
yaqīn, certitude
z.āhir, apparent state of a thing
z.akāh, alms tax
z.ann, doubt, conjecture, uncertainty (in religion)
IBN H.AZM'S CONCEPT OF IJMA'. APPENDIX & BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX
THE UMAYYAD DYNASSTY IN ANDALUSIA
(138/756-422/1031)
!
(1) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān I al-Dākhil (138/756-172/788)
|
(2) Hishām I (172/788-180/796)
|
(3) Al- H.akam I (180/796-206/822)
|
(4) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān II (206/822-238/852)
|
(5) Muh.ammad I (238/852-273/886)
________________________________
! !
(6) Al-Mundhir (273/886-275/888) (7) ‘Abd Allāh (275/888-300/912)
! Muh.ammad
|
(8) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān al-Nās.ir li-Dīn Allāh
(300/912-350/961)
______________________________________________________________________
| |
(9) Al- H.akam III al- Sulaymān ‘Abd al-Malik ‘Abd Allāh
Muntas. ir bi-Allāh
(350/961-366/976) !
| ‘Abd al-Jabbār
(10) Hishām II al- Al- H.akam Muh.ammad ‘Abd al-Rah.mān
Mu’ayyid bi-Allāh
(366/976-399/1009) (400/1010-403/1013)
Hishām (12) Sulaymān al- ! !
Musta‘īn bi-Allāh
(400/1009-407/1016) _____________________
|
(11) Muh.ammad II (13) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān IV
al-Mahdī al-Murt.ad.á
(399/1009-400/1010) (408/1018-410/1019) (14) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān V (15) Muh.ammad III
al-Mustaz.hir bi-Allāh al-Mustakfī bi-Allāh
(414/1023) (414/1024-416/1025)
Hishām I
Al-Mu‘tadd bi-Allāh
(418/1027-422/1031)
Adopted from:
1. E.D. Zambaur, Manuel de Généologie et de Chronologie pour l’Histoire de l’Islam
(Berlin: Thormann & Goetsch, 1927), pp. 3-4.
2. Stanley Lane-Pole, The Mohammedan Dynasties (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1925), p. 22.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
‘Abd al-Jabbār, al-Qād.ī Abū ’l-H.asan. Al-Mughnī, 20 vols. Cairo: Mat.ba‘at ‘Īsá al-Bābī al- H.alabī, 1385/19650.
________. Sharh. Us.ūl al-Khamsah. Edited by Dr. ‘Abd al-Karīm ‘Uthmān. Commented by al-Imām Ah.mad ibn al- H.usayn ibn Abī Hāshim. First edition. Cairo: Mat.ba‘at al-Istiqlāl al-Kubrá, 1384/ 1965.
‘Abd Allāh, ‘Umar. Sullam al-Wus.ūl li-‘Ilm al-Us.ūl. First edition. Egypt: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1956.
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THE UMAYYAD DYNASSTY IN ANDALUSIA
(138/756-422/1031)
!
(1) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān I al-Dākhil (138/756-172/788)
|
(2) Hishām I (172/788-180/796)
|
(3) Al- H.akam I (180/796-206/822)
|
(4) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān II (206/822-238/852)
|
(5) Muh.ammad I (238/852-273/886)
________________________________
! !
(6) Al-Mundhir (273/886-275/888) (7) ‘Abd Allāh (275/888-300/912)
! Muh.ammad
|
(8) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān al-Nās.ir li-Dīn Allāh
(300/912-350/961)
______________________________________________________________________
| |
(9) Al- H.akam III al- Sulaymān ‘Abd al-Malik ‘Abd Allāh
Muntas. ir bi-Allāh
(350/961-366/976) !
| ‘Abd al-Jabbār
(10) Hishām II al- Al- H.akam Muh.ammad ‘Abd al-Rah.mān
Mu’ayyid bi-Allāh
(366/976-399/1009) (400/1010-403/1013)
Hishām (12) Sulaymān al- ! !
Musta‘īn bi-Allāh
(400/1009-407/1016) _____________________
|
(11) Muh.ammad II (13) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān IV
al-Mahdī al-Murt.ad.á
(399/1009-400/1010) (408/1018-410/1019) (14) ‘Abd al-Rah.mān V (15) Muh.ammad III
al-Mustaz.hir bi-Allāh al-Mustakfī bi-Allāh
(414/1023) (414/1024-416/1025)
Hishām I
Al-Mu‘tadd bi-Allāh
(418/1027-422/1031)
Adopted from:
1. E.D. Zambaur, Manuel de Généologie et de Chronologie pour l’Histoire de l’Islam
(Berlin: Thormann & Goetsch, 1927), pp. 3-4.
2. Stanley Lane-Pole, The Mohammedan Dynasties (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1925), p. 22.
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Tuesday, January 24, 2012
IBN QUTAHBAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO QUR'ANIC EXEGESIS, CONCLUSION, BIBL. & APPENDICES
CONCLUSION
The Sunnī scholar Ibn Qutaybah received his knowledge of various Islamic sciences from scholars known for their attachment to the Sunnah. He learned Sunnī theology from Ish.āq ibn Rāhawayh, Sunnī tradition from Abū H.ātim al-Sijistānī and philology from al-‘Abbās ibn al-Faraj al-Riyāshī who had transmitted the works of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-As.ma‘ī who were teachers of Ibn Qutaybah of the second degree in philology.
When al-Mutawakkil was appointed as a caliph in 232/846 and changed the ideology of the state from that of the Mu‘tazilah to the Sunnī orthodoxy, Ibn Qutaybah found himself favoured by the new government. He was made qād.ī of Dīnawar by the newly appointed vizier ‘Abd Allāh ibn Yah.yá ibn Khāqān in 236/851.
Ibn Qutaybah was undisputedly the greatest man of letters in the Arabic language chronologically after al-Jāh.iz., and his contribution in the field of Qur’ānic exegesis cannot be underestimated. In the introduction of his work Ta’wīl he stated that the book was a collection of interpretations of difficult passages of the Qur’ān with explanations based on Arabic expression. Yet this statement does not necessarily imply that he merely acted a transmitter of the sciences of the Qur’ān from the previous generation to his generation without giving his own interpretation. Some interpretations were taken from scholars whom he mentioned by name; others were adopted by him without attributing any source. Yet, we can trace these interpretations back to some of his teachers, such Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’. However, there were many other philological interpretations which seemed to be purely his own, and were cited by many authors of later generations, such as Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Qurt.ubī and others.
One of the interpretations attributed to Ibn Qutaybah alone was his view on the seven ah.ruf. According to Ibn Qutaybah, these seven letters were seven aspects of variant readings, as follows: (1) The variant i‘rāb of a word or the vowelisation of its letters without changing its s.ūrah, such as the variant reading yujāzā and al-kafūru for respectively nujāzī and al-kafūra in the verse wa hal nujāzī illā ’l-kafūra (Q. 34:17); the first reading belonged to Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘ Abū ‘Amr and Ibn ‘Āmir, whereas the second belonged to H.amzah, al-Kisā’ī and H.afs.; (2) The variant i‘rāb of a word and the vowelisation of its letters which changed its meaning only and not its s.ūrah, such as rabbunā bā‘ada for rabbanā bā‘id (Q. 34: 19); the latter was the reading of Nāfi‘, ‘Ās.im, Ibn ‘Āmir, H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī; (3) The variant letters of a word which does not change its i‘rāb, but changes its meaning without changing its rasm, such as nunshiruhā for nunshizuhā (Q. 2:259); the former reading belonged to Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘ and Abū ‘Amr, whereas the latter belonged to ‘Ās.im, Ibn ‘Āmir, H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī; (4) the variant words which change the s.ūrah but not the meaning, such as Ibn Mas‘ūd’s reading zuqyah for s.ayh.ah (Q. 36:29); (5) the variant words which change the s.ūrah and meaning, such as ‘Alī’s reading wa t.al‘in for wa t.alh.in (Q. 56:29); (6) The variant reading by means of inversion, such as Abū Bakr’s reading wa jā’at sakrat al-h.aqq bi-al-mawt for wa jā’at sakrat al-mawt bi-al-h.aqq; and finally, (7) The variant reading based on addition and omission, such as the reading of H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī ‘amilat for ‘amilathu which was the reading of Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘, Abū Bakr, ‘Umar, Ibn ‘Āmir and H.afs.. This view of Ibn Qutaybah on the seven ah.ruf was quoted by many authors, among them al-Zarqānī in his work Manāhil al-‘Irfān. Al-Zarqānī also quoted the statement of Ibn H.ajar that the view of al-Rāzī on the seven ah.ruf was adopted from that of Ibn Qutaybah after revising it.
Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm know the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt in the Qur’ān. He contends that difficult expressions which cannot be easily understood similar to the mutashābihāt in the Qur’ān are also found in the H.adīth, the saying of s.ah.ābah, poetry as well as Arabic expression. He cites an example from the Prophet’s statement concerning women “who dress and at the same time are naked”, meaning that they wear thin or skimpy clothing which reveal the outlines of their bodies. Ibn Qutaybah contends further that Allah would not mention something in the Qur’ān except for the benefit of mankind, and that Allah would let them know what He meant by it. The argument for and against those who hold views similar or different from that of Ibn Qutaybah brought a third and a conciliatory view: some mutashābihāt are known by al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm, others by Allah alone, such as the beast which will appears as one of the signs of Doomsday (Q. 27:82).
The term majāz as the opposite of h.aqīqah was unknown in the first/seventh and the second/eight century. It appeared in the third/ninth century or probably at the end of the second/eight century. The term majāz in Abū ‘Ubaydah’s work Majāz al-Qur’ān was still used in its basic meaning: “the way of expression.” The term majāz as opposite of h.aqīqah appeared in al-Jāh.iz.’s statements in his work al-Bayān wa ’l-Tabyīn, and later was used more obviously in Ibn Qutaybah’s work Ta’wīl. Ibn Qutaybah stated that the use of majāz was common, not only in the Qur’ān, but also in poetry and common expression. As an example, he cited the word “mother.” The Qur’ānic verse fa’ummuhu hāwiyah (“his mother will be an abyss”) (Q. 10:19) means that the unbeliever will be sent to Hell like a baby to his mother. Similarly, the Prophet’s wives, described as “mothers of the believers” (Q. 33:6), means that they are like their mothers in the reverence accorded them. In poetry Ibn Qutaybah cited the following poem of Umayyah ibn Abī al-S.alt: “And the land is our refuge and was our mother. In it our grave will be, and in it we shall be buried.”
Ibn Qutaybah was extremely cautious with the use of majāz. When he warned people against excessive use of it in the Qur’ān which might lead to misinterpreting its verses he might have had the Mu‘tazilīs in mind. He also might have been influenced by his teacher of the second degree, Ah.mad ibn H.anbal, who refused to interpret many Qur’ānic verses dealing with Allah as majāz, such as His throne (‘Arsh) which was interpreted by the Mu‘tazilīs as a metaphor for “His sovereignty.” Ibn Qutaybah made a distinction between “saying” and “speaking” and said that the former could be majāz but not the latter, unless there was a strong indication of being majāz, such as an animate being giving advice or moral lessons. He gave two conditions for a word to become majāz: it shall not be accompanied with its mas.dar, and it shall not be emphasized with takrār (repetition). For example, we can say “the wall will fall down,” but we do not say “the wall will fall down with strong willingness,” because it is majāz. The verse wa kallama Allāhu Mūsá taklīman (Q. 4:164) and innamā qawlunā li-shay‘in idhā aradnāhu an naqūla lahu kun fayakūn (Q. 16:40) are not majāz, but h.aqīqah, as the term kallama is accompanied with its mas.dar, namely, taklīman in the former verse, and the term qawl is emphasized with the repetition of it with the word naqūlu in the latter.
Ibn Qutaybah’s treatment of isti‘ārah was rudimentary. He included not only metaphor, but also majāz mursal, wujūh (homonyms) and hyperbole (اْلمُبَالَغَةُ فِي اْلوَصْف) in the category of isti‘ārah. In the verse wa af’idatuhum hawā’ “and their hearts (as) air” (Q. 14:43), the word hawā’ (air) is a metaphor for emptiness of their hearts. In the verse: “But as for those with faces shining, they shall be within God’s grace, therein to abide” (Q. 3:107, Asad), Allah’s grace which is a h.āl (a condition) is a majāz mursal for a place, Paradise. As Ibn Qutaybah also mentioned other meanings of rah.mah in the Qur’ān, such as rain in Q. 7:57 and sustenance in Q. 35:2, this term was later dealt with as having many wujūh by later writers, such as al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and [al-]Tiflīsī in their respective works Qāmūs, Nuzhah and Wujūh. These works dealt with al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir (homonyms and synonyms) in the Qur’ān. The verse yakādu layuzliqūnaka bi’abs.ārihim (Q. 68:51) meaning “they would all but kill thee” (Asad), “would fain disconcert thee” (Ali), or “would almost trip thee up” (Pickthall) indicates hyperbole, that the disbelievers looked at the Prophet with such hostility and sternness that they almost made him slip and fall down.
It is commonly known that the Arabic language is called the language of opposite meanings (lughat al-ad.dād). For this, Ibn Qutaybah includes a special chapter in his Ta’wīl entitled al-Maqlūb (lit., “the inverted one”), translated in this study as “inversion”. Inversion occurs by ascribing something with its opposite quality, such as calling a foolish person a bright one with an intention either to encourage him or to insult him. Ibn Qutaybah also examines in this chapter thirteen words which have contradictory meanings, one of which is usually more prevalent than the other, although they are derived from one basic meaning. The word warā’ for example, its basic meaning is “something absent from our sight”, whether before or behind us, but the more prevalent meaning is “behind”; however, it can also mean “before”, such as in the verse: “… because [I know that] behind them was a king who is wont to seize every boat by brute force” (Q. 18:79); the term warā’ here, according to Ibn Qutaybah, means amām (before). The later author Ibn al-Anbārī included all these terms except ya’isa in his work Kitāb al-Ad.dād. Other authors, such as al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī, and Ibn Fāris, included some of these terms in their works.
Some Qur’ānic verses seem to be unclear because of the ellipsis (h.adhf) of some words and the brevity (ikhtis.ār) of the Qur’ānic verses. Ibn Qutaybah deals with ellipsis and brevity of expression systematically in his Ta’wīl to clarify the meanings of these verses. Some verses utilize the ellipsis of one or two words, a noun, a verb, a preposition, the particle lā (no, not), the main clause of an oath, of a conditional or incomplete sentence. They are examined with examples from the Qur’ān and some lines of poetry are included as shawāhid to support his view.
Takrār (repetition) and ziyādah (pleonasm) are also among the characteristics of the Arabic language dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl. They are used to emphasize something. Takrār can be in meaning, either (a) by mentioning its synonyms, such as “Or do they, perchance, think that We do not hear their hidden thoughts (sirr) and their secret confabulations (najwāhum),” (Q. 43:80) (b) by mentioning its kind, such as “In both of them will be [all kinds of] fruit, and date palms and pomegranates.” (Q. 55:68, Asad), or (c) by negating its opposite, such as the expression “I order you to fulfill your promise and I forbid you from betraying it.”
Ibn Qutaybah divides ziyādah into two types: (a) general pleonasm, namely the addition of unspecified words, such as the expression “with their mouths” I the verse “uttering with their mouths something which is not in their hearts” (Q. 3:167, Asad), and (b) specific pleonasm, namely the addition of specified words, such as nouns, particles and prepositions. They are fifteen in number. Not knowing them could make it difficult for us to understand the meanings of the verses of the Qur’ān, such as the verse: “Everything is bound to perish save His [eternal] Self” (Q. 28:88, Asad), in which the term wajh (face, countenance) in wajhahu (lit., His Countenance”) is additional according to Mujāhid, Abū ‘Ubaydah dan al-Farrā’, and translated as “Self” and “Essence” by Asad as cited above and al-Zamakhsharī respectively.
In the field of ta‘rīd. Ibn Qutaybah mainly deals with the euphemistic and circumspective expressions in the Qur’ān. For example, “…and behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His Oneness] are one the right path, or have clearly gone astray!” (Q. 34:24, Asad). This is a euphemistic and polite way of saying “we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray”. For the circumspective statement Ibn Qutaybah gives the following example: “He [Abraham] answered: ‘Nay, it was this one, the biggest of them, that did it: but ask them [yourselves] – provided they can speak.’” (Q. 21:63, Asad). Here Prophet Abraham confessed to destroying the idols through insinuation.
Apart from majāz and mutashābihāt Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl also deals with various types of idiomatic expressions entitlted Mukhālafat z.āhir al-lafz. Ma‘nāh (lit., “the disagreement of the literal meaning of the word with its [intended] meaning”). It includes, to mention a few, (a) the imperative mood intended to threaten (tah.dīd), such as: “Do what you will…” (Q. 41:40, Asad) and exemption (ibāh.ah), such as: “And when the prayer is ended, then disperse freely on earth…” (Q. 62:10), Asad; (b) specification in which a general statement is intended to be particular in time and person, such as: “…and I am the first of those who surrender to Him” (Q. 6:163, Pickthall), meaning the Prophet in his time; (c) number, such as a noun put in a singular number but is meant to be in the plural, as in the verse: “…and then We bring you forth as infants” (Q. 22:5, Asad), in which the word t.iflan (lit., an infant) is meant to be at.fālan (infants); (d) what is called by later philologists iltifāt (sudden transition), such as Allah addressing the Prophet with “and if they do not respond to your call”, suddenly the address is shifted to unbelievers, with “then know that [this Qur’ān] has been bestowed from on high out of God’s wisdom alone, …Will you, then surrender yourselves unto Him?” (Q. 11:14, Asad); (e) juncture, namely, the joining of two different statements of two different persons (or groups of persons), such as the verse: “They will say: ‘Oh, woe unto us! Who has roused us from our sleep [of death]?’” which was the statement of righteous Muslims when they were resurrected. This statement was joined with that of the angels, “[Whereupon they will be told:] ‘This is what the Most Gracious has promised! And His message bearers spoke the truth!’” (Q. 36:52, Asad). This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and al-Farrā’ adopted by Ibn Qutaybah; and (f) tempora, such as the use of a verb in the past tense when they are meant for the present or the future, for example, “God’s judgment is [bound to] come…” (Q. 16:1, Asad), in which the verb atá (lit., “it came”) is meant to be “it will come.”
As we know Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm know the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt. Therefore, he does not belong to those who believe that the al-ah.ruf al-muqat.t.a‘ah (the disconnected letters) at the beginning of twenty-nine sūrahs in the Qur’ān to be mysterious and inexplicable. He mentions four interpretations of them: They are: (a) the names of the sūrahs to which they belong; (b) Allah’s oaths; (c) letters taken from Allah’s attributes; and (d) letters taken from the attributes of the Qur’ān.
One of the important branches of the sciences of exegesis dealt by Ibn Qutaybah is the homonyms and synonyms in the Qur’ān (al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir fī ’l-Qur’ān) which he calls “words which agree in wording but differ in meaning” (ماَ اْتَفَقَ لَفْظُهُ وَاخْتَلَفَ مَعْنَاه). For example, the term fitnah which basically means “a test,” means shirk (polytheism, idolatry) in the verse: وَالْفِتْنَةُ أَشَدُّ مِنَ الْقَتْلِ (البقرة : ١٩١) “…for polytheism is worse than slaughter.” (Q. 2:191), whereas it means ithm (sin) in the following verse: أَلَا فِي الْفِتْنَةِ سَقَطُوا (التوبة : ٤٩)“…Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen….” (Q. 9:49). With this branch of science many Qur’ānic verses become clear, as the textual meaning is given rather than the literal meaning. This branch of science is so important that al-Zarkashī put it in number four of the forty-seven branches of the Qur’ānic science in his work al-Burhān, whereas al-Suyūt.ī put it number thirty–nine of the eighty branches in his book al-Itqān. It was in this branch of science that Ibn al-Jawzī in his work Nuzhah quoted Ibn Qutaybah by name about fifty times, mainly from his Ta’wīl in which he dealt with forty-four words and their meanings.
As a philologist Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl also deals with thirty-three particles with their various meanings with examples from the Qur’ān and occasionally from poetry as shawāhid. For example, the particle anná has two meanings: (a) kayfa (how), as in أَنَّى يُحْيِي هَذِهِ اللَّهُ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا (البقرة : ٢٥٩) “He said: How could Allah brings this [township] back to life after its death?” (Q. 2:259); (b) min ayna (wherefrom), as in أَنَّى يَكُونُ لَهُ وَلَدٌ (الأنعام : ١٠١) “…where can He have a child from…” (Q. 6:101).
One of the problems in understanding a language is the use of prepositions. Different prepositions make different meanings, such as the word “look” added with prepositions and it becomes “look for,” “look at,” and “look on.” The substitution of these prepositions would change its meaning and could confuse people. Such substitution was dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl as well as his Adab al-Kātib. He mentions seven particles substituted with other particles without any change of meaning with examples from the Qur’ān. They are: ilá (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until), bi (in, at, on; with; through, by means of), ‘alá (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for), ‘an (off, away, from; out of, about; for), fī. (in; at; on; near; by; within; during), li (for), and min (from). One example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is the verse لَيَجْمَعَنَّكُمْ إِلَى يَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (النساء : ٨٧) “He will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection” (Q. 4:87) in which the prepositions ilá substitutes the preposition fī. Therefore, the expression ilá yawm al-qiyāmah in the above verse means “on the Day of Resurrection” rather than “till the Day of Resurrection.”
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah in his works in general and his work Ta’wīl Mushkil al-Qur’ān in particular has rendered an enormous contribution to Qur’ānic exegesis. This contribution was either by transmitting the knowledge of his teachers in this field of study or by his being an a‘jamī (non-Arab), he has proved in effect his profound knowledge of Arabic philology which is of inestimable value in the study of Qur’ānic exegesis.
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APPENDIX 1
AUTHORITIES AND TRANSMITTERS OF THE QUR’AN
Place Authority Transmitters
-------¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Madīnah Nāfi‘ (d. 169/785-786) Warsh (d. 197/813)
Qālūn (d. 220/835)
Makkah Ibn Kathīr (d. 120/738) al-Bazzī (d. 250/864)
(Mecca) Qunbul (d. 291/904)
Damascus Ibn ‘Āmir (d. 118/736) Hishām (d. 242/856-857)
Ibn Dhakwān (d. 245/859)
Bas.rah Abū ‘Amr (d. 154/771) al-D.ūrī (d. 246/860)
al-Sūsī (d. 261/875)
Kūfah ‘Ās.im (d. 128/746) H.afs. (d. 190/806)
Ibn ‘Ayyāsh (d. 194/810)
Kūfah H.amzah (d. 158/775) Khalaf (d. 229/844)
Khallād (d. 220/835)
Kūfah al-Kisā’ī [d. ca. 189/805] al-D.ūrī (d. 240/854-5)
Abu’l-Harith (d. 46/860)
Adopted from:
A. Jones, "The Qur’an - II," Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, eds. A.F.L. Beeston, T.M. Johnstone et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 244.
APPENDIX 2
GLOSSARY
āh ād, a h.adīth reported by one chain of transmitters
alif al-istifhām, alif as an interrogative particle.
alif al-was.l, (lit., alif of connection), the letter alif which can be omitted, either in pronunciation, spelling, or both, such as ūlī ’l-amr read ulil amr, in modern terminology it is called hamzat al-was.l, conjuctive hamzah.
amr, command, commanding, imperative
amthāl (sing. mathal), parables
‘arūd., prosody
asbāb al-nuzūl, the reasons for revelation; the occasions and circumstances which led to the revelation of the verses of the Qur’ān
as.h.āb al-kalām, the adherents of scholastic theology
as.h.āb al-ra’y, the adherents of personal opinion
as.l, basic meaning, the primary signification
‘a t.f, conjunction
bāt.in, inward meaning
bayān, explanation
dalālah, an indicant, a hint, sense, meaning
d.amīr, pronoun
d.amīr al-sha’n, a pronoun indicating circumstances, e.g., “It is late”
dīwān, collection of poetical work, collection of poetry by a single author or from a single tribe.
fad.ā’il, particular virtue, "excellences"
farā’id. (sing., farīd.ah), religious obligations
fas.āh.ah,. eloquence
fatwá (pl. fatawá). legal opinion
fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence
fuqahā’ (sing., faqīh), Muslim jurists
gharīb, rare, uncommon word or expression
h.adhf, ellipsis
h.adīth, news, a story, and finally a technical term for the tradition of what the Prophet said, did or approved
h.alāl, lawful, permissible
h.arām, unlawful, prohibited
h.udūd (sing., h.add), penal law
al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah, ambiguous letters found in the opening of some sūrahs of the Qur’ān
ibāh.ah, examption
‘ibrah (pl., ‘ibar), deterrent example
ibtidā’ (of) inception, e.g., lām al-ibtidā’ (letter l of inception)
‘iddah, the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being divorced or widowed
idghām, contraction, such as contracting letter n with letter m in min ba‘d and read mim ba‘d
id.mār, making implicit
ih.tijāj, protest
ijtihād, independent judgment, especially in a legal question based upon the interpretation of the Qur’ān and the Sunnah
ijtihād bi ’l-ra’y, speculative thinking
ikhtis.ār, brevity
‘ilm al-tas.rīf, etymology
iltifāt, apostrophe, shifting from one object or pronoun to another, turning the address from one person or group of people to another
imālah, inclining closed vowels to open, such as pronouncing hāk as hék
imām, leader, particularly at prayers.
inshā’, composition
‘iqāb, punishment
i‘rāb, adding vowels, the inflectional terminations of nouns and verbs; desinential (grammatical) inflection
ishmām, ‘giving the flavour’ of one sound to another such as the pronunciation of the vowel u with a trace of i and vice versa, similar to the German ü; e.g., reading rudda as rüdda and h.imār as h.ümār; in the Australian accent "a nice day" is pronounced almost like "a noise die".
isnād, chains of authorities on which a h.adīth (a tradi¬tion or a historical writing) is based; chains of transmitters through whom a h.adīth has been handed down
isrā’iliyyāt legends from Jewish people; Jewish traditions used to amplify Qur’ānic allusions
isti‘ārah, metaphor
istifhām, asking a question
istifhām inkārī, a negative question
istifhām taqrīrī, an affirmative question
is t.ilāh., conventional term, technical term (terminology)
istit.rād, digression
i‘tirād., parenthesis
‘ilm al-‘arūd., Arabic prosody
‘ilm al-tas.rīf,- etymology
‘iz.ah, sermon, advice
iz.hār, pronouncing clearly
jadal, dialectic
jawāb al-shart., a clause answering to an if-clause in syntax
jazm, apocopating
kāfir, unbeliever
kalām, theology, especially the scholastic one
khabar, predicate; news of the past
khalaf, successors; (esp. Muslim scholars of) later generations (approx. after the third/ninth century)
khālafa lafz.uhā rasmahā, irregular orthography
kināyah, metonymy
kunyah, "allusive" name consisting of Abū ("father of") or Umm ("mother of") followed either by a name or describing some prominent characteristic of its bearer
kuttāb, Qur’ānic school
lah.n, solecism, ungrammatical expression
laqab, (earlier) name alluding to a personal characteristic; (later) honorific title
lughat al-‘Arab, the Arabs’ way of expression
mabnī, indeclinable
madhhab (pl., madhāhib), a school of law among Sunnī Muslims
mād.ī, preterite
maghāzī, military expedition, accounts of early battles of Islam, early Muslim expeditions in which the Prophet took part
majāz a way, road, or path; figurative (literary) expression
majāz mursal, a loose trope (e.g,. "hand" used as meaning "a benefit" or "a favour").
malāh.im, apocalyptic h.adīths; tales of eschatological nature related by storytellers
mansūkh, abrogated
marfū‘, in the nominative case
mas.dar, verbal noun
ma‘s.ūm, immune from error, infallible
mawā‘iz. (sing., maw‘iz.ah), exhortations, advice
mathal (pl. amthāl), parable
mawlá (pl., mawālī),- protector; client, freed slave; non-Arab Muslim
maws.ūl, relative pronoun
mubtada’, inchoative, subject
mud.āf, annexed
mud.āf ilayh, what is annexed to, complements of a prefixed noun
mud.āri‘, imperfect verb
mufassir, commentator, interpreter, Qur’ānic exegete
muh.aqqiq, an effective investigator (researcher)
muh.kam, parts of the Qur’ān which had a clear meaning
mujtahid, a legist who exercises ijtihād
mulh.idīn, (sing. mulh.id) heretics, unbelievers
mus.h.af, Qur’ānic codex
Mus.h.af al-Imām: the Master Copy, the standard copy of the Qur’ān, namely, the copy of ‘Uthmān
mut.ābaqah, antithesis
mutakallim, scholastic theologian
mutashābih (pl., mutashābihāt), ambiguous obscure; ambiguous verse in the Qur’ān
mutawātir, a tradition narrated by many reliable authorities that the possibilities of its being fabricated by collusion is out of question. This is the reliable tradition among Muslims.
Mu‘tazilah, theological school which created the speculative dogmatics of Islam
nah.w, grammar, syntax
nafy, negation
nāsikh, abrogating
nas.rāniyyāt, legends from Christians
naz.ar, insight, reason
nisbah, derivative form (ending in -i) of a name or other noun
Qadarīs, a group of teachers of the ‘Abbāsī period who championed free will against the theory of predestination; they later merged with the Mu‘tazilīs
qād .ī, a judge, a judge of a court
qād .ī ’l-qud.āt, (lit., judge of judges), chief judge
qāri’ (pl., qurrā’), reader, reciter of the Qur’ān
qas.as., narrative, tale, story
qas.s.ās., storytellers, relaters of qis.as.
qirā’ah, recitation of the Qur’ān; variant reading of the Qur’ān
qirā’ah munkarah, a rejected reading, a reading which was temporarily permitted in the early period of Islam only to people who were not able to memorize or articulate the Qur’ān properly
qis.s.ah (pl., qis.as.) story, narrative tale, in particular; in plural, the narrative of the Qur’ān
qurrā’ (sing., qāri’), readers, reciters of the Qur’ān
rāsikh (pl., rasikhūn) fī ’l-‘ilm, a person who is conversant with knowledge, firmly grounded in knowledge (A.Y. Ali), deeply rooted in knowledge (M. Asad) or of sound instruction (M. Pickthall)
ra’y, personal opinion
rithā’, lamentation, elegiac poetry
s.ah.ābah (sing., s.ah.ābī), companions of the Prophet
saj‘, rhymed prose
salaf, (lit. predecessors), the first three generations of the s.ah.abah, tābi‘īn, and tābi‘ī ’l-tābi‘īn
s.alāh., prayer
sanad, (see isnād)
shakl, consonantal outline, consonantal skeleton, such as for بشر (bashar), نسر (nasr) andيسر (yusr).
sharī‘ah, Islamic law
shawāhid (sing., shāhid), quotations serving as textual evidence
shifā’, healing
s.ilah, a syndetic relative clause; the connection of a verb with the object complement, whether immediate or by means of a preposition; the complement of a maws.ūl (conjunct)
s.uh.uf (sing., s.ah.īfah), leaves; pages; sheets, scrolls, particularly those of the Qur’ān
sunnah, way, path; customary practice, particularly that of the Prophet; usage sanctioned by tradition; the sayings and doings of the Prophet which have been established as legally binding
Sunnī, Muslim who believes that the sunnah cannot be over-ridden by any human authority
sūrah, chapter of the Qur’ān
s.ūrah, form, representation, picture
tābi‘īn (sing., tābi‘ī), people succeeding the generation of the s.ah.ābah
tābi‘ī ’l-tābi‘īn, (lit., "followers of the followers"), the generation after that of the tābi‘īn
tadabbur, reflection
tad.mīn, insertion
tafkhīm, emphatic pronunciation of a consonant, such as the English pronunciation of c, p and t in "capital", "people" and "time" (rather than in "logic", "open" and "meter".
tafsīr, commentary, interpretation; Qur’ānic exegesis
takhfīf, the easing in reading by dropping a vowel, such as reading bushran for bushuran; in English it is like pronouncing "transptation" for "transportation".
takrār, repetition
tamthīl, analogy, comparison, likening
tanwīn, nunation, making clear the an, in or un ending of a word, e.g., rajul with tanwīn becomes rajulan, rajulin, and rajulun
taqrīr, affirmation
targhīb, encouragement of good
tarhīb, discouragement of evil
ta‘rī d., allusion
tarqīq, softening the pronunciation of a word (opposite of tafkhīm), e.g., letter t in "better"
tashbīh, simile; the error of asserting that Allah resembles created things in any way, anthropomorphism
tas.rīf, the conjugation of a verb
tawātur, (see mutāwatir)
tawbīkh, reproach, reprimand, rebuke
tawqīf, the subject of divine revelation
thawāb, reward
tubba‘ (pl., tabābi‘ah), the title of the pre-Islamic Himyarite kings of the Yemen
‘ulamā’ (sing., ‘ālim), scholars, men of learning, savants, the theologians and teachers of Islam
wa‘d, promise
wa‘īd, threat
wāw al-qasam, adjurative particle
wud.ū’, ablution
wujūh al-qirā’ah, variant readings; variae lectiones
zabāniyah, infernal attendants of Hell
zajr, prohibition
z.ālim, transgressor
zawj, a pair or one of a pair
zindīq, a heretic, a dualist, particularly a Manichee.
The Sunnī scholar Ibn Qutaybah received his knowledge of various Islamic sciences from scholars known for their attachment to the Sunnah. He learned Sunnī theology from Ish.āq ibn Rāhawayh, Sunnī tradition from Abū H.ātim al-Sijistānī and philology from al-‘Abbās ibn al-Faraj al-Riyāshī who had transmitted the works of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-As.ma‘ī who were teachers of Ibn Qutaybah of the second degree in philology.
When al-Mutawakkil was appointed as a caliph in 232/846 and changed the ideology of the state from that of the Mu‘tazilah to the Sunnī orthodoxy, Ibn Qutaybah found himself favoured by the new government. He was made qād.ī of Dīnawar by the newly appointed vizier ‘Abd Allāh ibn Yah.yá ibn Khāqān in 236/851.
Ibn Qutaybah was undisputedly the greatest man of letters in the Arabic language chronologically after al-Jāh.iz., and his contribution in the field of Qur’ānic exegesis cannot be underestimated. In the introduction of his work Ta’wīl he stated that the book was a collection of interpretations of difficult passages of the Qur’ān with explanations based on Arabic expression. Yet this statement does not necessarily imply that he merely acted a transmitter of the sciences of the Qur’ān from the previous generation to his generation without giving his own interpretation. Some interpretations were taken from scholars whom he mentioned by name; others were adopted by him without attributing any source. Yet, we can trace these interpretations back to some of his teachers, such Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’. However, there were many other philological interpretations which seemed to be purely his own, and were cited by many authors of later generations, such as Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Qurt.ubī and others.
One of the interpretations attributed to Ibn Qutaybah alone was his view on the seven ah.ruf. According to Ibn Qutaybah, these seven letters were seven aspects of variant readings, as follows: (1) The variant i‘rāb of a word or the vowelisation of its letters without changing its s.ūrah, such as the variant reading yujāzā and al-kafūru for respectively nujāzī and al-kafūra in the verse wa hal nujāzī illā ’l-kafūra (Q. 34:17); the first reading belonged to Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘ Abū ‘Amr and Ibn ‘Āmir, whereas the second belonged to H.amzah, al-Kisā’ī and H.afs.; (2) The variant i‘rāb of a word and the vowelisation of its letters which changed its meaning only and not its s.ūrah, such as rabbunā bā‘ada for rabbanā bā‘id (Q. 34: 19); the latter was the reading of Nāfi‘, ‘Ās.im, Ibn ‘Āmir, H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī; (3) The variant letters of a word which does not change its i‘rāb, but changes its meaning without changing its rasm, such as nunshiruhā for nunshizuhā (Q. 2:259); the former reading belonged to Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘ and Abū ‘Amr, whereas the latter belonged to ‘Ās.im, Ibn ‘Āmir, H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī; (4) the variant words which change the s.ūrah but not the meaning, such as Ibn Mas‘ūd’s reading zuqyah for s.ayh.ah (Q. 36:29); (5) the variant words which change the s.ūrah and meaning, such as ‘Alī’s reading wa t.al‘in for wa t.alh.in (Q. 56:29); (6) The variant reading by means of inversion, such as Abū Bakr’s reading wa jā’at sakrat al-h.aqq bi-al-mawt for wa jā’at sakrat al-mawt bi-al-h.aqq; and finally, (7) The variant reading based on addition and omission, such as the reading of H.amzah and al-Kisā’ī ‘amilat for ‘amilathu which was the reading of Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘, Abū Bakr, ‘Umar, Ibn ‘Āmir and H.afs.. This view of Ibn Qutaybah on the seven ah.ruf was quoted by many authors, among them al-Zarqānī in his work Manāhil al-‘Irfān. Al-Zarqānī also quoted the statement of Ibn H.ajar that the view of al-Rāzī on the seven ah.ruf was adopted from that of Ibn Qutaybah after revising it.
Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm know the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt in the Qur’ān. He contends that difficult expressions which cannot be easily understood similar to the mutashābihāt in the Qur’ān are also found in the H.adīth, the saying of s.ah.ābah, poetry as well as Arabic expression. He cites an example from the Prophet’s statement concerning women “who dress and at the same time are naked”, meaning that they wear thin or skimpy clothing which reveal the outlines of their bodies. Ibn Qutaybah contends further that Allah would not mention something in the Qur’ān except for the benefit of mankind, and that Allah would let them know what He meant by it. The argument for and against those who hold views similar or different from that of Ibn Qutaybah brought a third and a conciliatory view: some mutashābihāt are known by al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm, others by Allah alone, such as the beast which will appears as one of the signs of Doomsday (Q. 27:82).
The term majāz as the opposite of h.aqīqah was unknown in the first/seventh and the second/eight century. It appeared in the third/ninth century or probably at the end of the second/eight century. The term majāz in Abū ‘Ubaydah’s work Majāz al-Qur’ān was still used in its basic meaning: “the way of expression.” The term majāz as opposite of h.aqīqah appeared in al-Jāh.iz.’s statements in his work al-Bayān wa ’l-Tabyīn, and later was used more obviously in Ibn Qutaybah’s work Ta’wīl. Ibn Qutaybah stated that the use of majāz was common, not only in the Qur’ān, but also in poetry and common expression. As an example, he cited the word “mother.” The Qur’ānic verse fa’ummuhu hāwiyah (“his mother will be an abyss”) (Q. 10:19) means that the unbeliever will be sent to Hell like a baby to his mother. Similarly, the Prophet’s wives, described as “mothers of the believers” (Q. 33:6), means that they are like their mothers in the reverence accorded them. In poetry Ibn Qutaybah cited the following poem of Umayyah ibn Abī al-S.alt: “And the land is our refuge and was our mother. In it our grave will be, and in it we shall be buried.”
Ibn Qutaybah was extremely cautious with the use of majāz. When he warned people against excessive use of it in the Qur’ān which might lead to misinterpreting its verses he might have had the Mu‘tazilīs in mind. He also might have been influenced by his teacher of the second degree, Ah.mad ibn H.anbal, who refused to interpret many Qur’ānic verses dealing with Allah as majāz, such as His throne (‘Arsh) which was interpreted by the Mu‘tazilīs as a metaphor for “His sovereignty.” Ibn Qutaybah made a distinction between “saying” and “speaking” and said that the former could be majāz but not the latter, unless there was a strong indication of being majāz, such as an animate being giving advice or moral lessons. He gave two conditions for a word to become majāz: it shall not be accompanied with its mas.dar, and it shall not be emphasized with takrār (repetition). For example, we can say “the wall will fall down,” but we do not say “the wall will fall down with strong willingness,” because it is majāz. The verse wa kallama Allāhu Mūsá taklīman (Q. 4:164) and innamā qawlunā li-shay‘in idhā aradnāhu an naqūla lahu kun fayakūn (Q. 16:40) are not majāz, but h.aqīqah, as the term kallama is accompanied with its mas.dar, namely, taklīman in the former verse, and the term qawl is emphasized with the repetition of it with the word naqūlu in the latter.
Ibn Qutaybah’s treatment of isti‘ārah was rudimentary. He included not only metaphor, but also majāz mursal, wujūh (homonyms) and hyperbole (اْلمُبَالَغَةُ فِي اْلوَصْف) in the category of isti‘ārah. In the verse wa af’idatuhum hawā’ “and their hearts (as) air” (Q. 14:43), the word hawā’ (air) is a metaphor for emptiness of their hearts. In the verse: “But as for those with faces shining, they shall be within God’s grace, therein to abide” (Q. 3:107, Asad), Allah’s grace which is a h.āl (a condition) is a majāz mursal for a place, Paradise. As Ibn Qutaybah also mentioned other meanings of rah.mah in the Qur’ān, such as rain in Q. 7:57 and sustenance in Q. 35:2, this term was later dealt with as having many wujūh by later writers, such as al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and [al-]Tiflīsī in their respective works Qāmūs, Nuzhah and Wujūh. These works dealt with al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir (homonyms and synonyms) in the Qur’ān. The verse yakādu layuzliqūnaka bi’abs.ārihim (Q. 68:51) meaning “they would all but kill thee” (Asad), “would fain disconcert thee” (Ali), or “would almost trip thee up” (Pickthall) indicates hyperbole, that the disbelievers looked at the Prophet with such hostility and sternness that they almost made him slip and fall down.
It is commonly known that the Arabic language is called the language of opposite meanings (lughat al-ad.dād). For this, Ibn Qutaybah includes a special chapter in his Ta’wīl entitled al-Maqlūb (lit., “the inverted one”), translated in this study as “inversion”. Inversion occurs by ascribing something with its opposite quality, such as calling a foolish person a bright one with an intention either to encourage him or to insult him. Ibn Qutaybah also examines in this chapter thirteen words which have contradictory meanings, one of which is usually more prevalent than the other, although they are derived from one basic meaning. The word warā’ for example, its basic meaning is “something absent from our sight”, whether before or behind us, but the more prevalent meaning is “behind”; however, it can also mean “before”, such as in the verse: “… because [I know that] behind them was a king who is wont to seize every boat by brute force” (Q. 18:79); the term warā’ here, according to Ibn Qutaybah, means amām (before). The later author Ibn al-Anbārī included all these terms except ya’isa in his work Kitāb al-Ad.dād. Other authors, such as al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī, and Ibn Fāris, included some of these terms in their works.
Some Qur’ānic verses seem to be unclear because of the ellipsis (h.adhf) of some words and the brevity (ikhtis.ār) of the Qur’ānic verses. Ibn Qutaybah deals with ellipsis and brevity of expression systematically in his Ta’wīl to clarify the meanings of these verses. Some verses utilize the ellipsis of one or two words, a noun, a verb, a preposition, the particle lā (no, not), the main clause of an oath, of a conditional or incomplete sentence. They are examined with examples from the Qur’ān and some lines of poetry are included as shawāhid to support his view.
Takrār (repetition) and ziyādah (pleonasm) are also among the characteristics of the Arabic language dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl. They are used to emphasize something. Takrār can be in meaning, either (a) by mentioning its synonyms, such as “Or do they, perchance, think that We do not hear their hidden thoughts (sirr) and their secret confabulations (najwāhum),” (Q. 43:80) (b) by mentioning its kind, such as “In both of them will be [all kinds of] fruit, and date palms and pomegranates.” (Q. 55:68, Asad), or (c) by negating its opposite, such as the expression “I order you to fulfill your promise and I forbid you from betraying it.”
Ibn Qutaybah divides ziyādah into two types: (a) general pleonasm, namely the addition of unspecified words, such as the expression “with their mouths” I the verse “uttering with their mouths something which is not in their hearts” (Q. 3:167, Asad), and (b) specific pleonasm, namely the addition of specified words, such as nouns, particles and prepositions. They are fifteen in number. Not knowing them could make it difficult for us to understand the meanings of the verses of the Qur’ān, such as the verse: “Everything is bound to perish save His [eternal] Self” (Q. 28:88, Asad), in which the term wajh (face, countenance) in wajhahu (lit., His Countenance”) is additional according to Mujāhid, Abū ‘Ubaydah dan al-Farrā’, and translated as “Self” and “Essence” by Asad as cited above and al-Zamakhsharī respectively.
In the field of ta‘rīd. Ibn Qutaybah mainly deals with the euphemistic and circumspective expressions in the Qur’ān. For example, “…and behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His Oneness] are one the right path, or have clearly gone astray!” (Q. 34:24, Asad). This is a euphemistic and polite way of saying “we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray”. For the circumspective statement Ibn Qutaybah gives the following example: “He [Abraham] answered: ‘Nay, it was this one, the biggest of them, that did it: but ask them [yourselves] – provided they can speak.’” (Q. 21:63, Asad). Here Prophet Abraham confessed to destroying the idols through insinuation.
Apart from majāz and mutashābihāt Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl also deals with various types of idiomatic expressions entitlted Mukhālafat z.āhir al-lafz. Ma‘nāh (lit., “the disagreement of the literal meaning of the word with its [intended] meaning”). It includes, to mention a few, (a) the imperative mood intended to threaten (tah.dīd), such as: “Do what you will…” (Q. 41:40, Asad) and exemption (ibāh.ah), such as: “And when the prayer is ended, then disperse freely on earth…” (Q. 62:10), Asad; (b) specification in which a general statement is intended to be particular in time and person, such as: “…and I am the first of those who surrender to Him” (Q. 6:163, Pickthall), meaning the Prophet in his time; (c) number, such as a noun put in a singular number but is meant to be in the plural, as in the verse: “…and then We bring you forth as infants” (Q. 22:5, Asad), in which the word t.iflan (lit., an infant) is meant to be at.fālan (infants); (d) what is called by later philologists iltifāt (sudden transition), such as Allah addressing the Prophet with “and if they do not respond to your call”, suddenly the address is shifted to unbelievers, with “then know that [this Qur’ān] has been bestowed from on high out of God’s wisdom alone, …Will you, then surrender yourselves unto Him?” (Q. 11:14, Asad); (e) juncture, namely, the joining of two different statements of two different persons (or groups of persons), such as the verse: “They will say: ‘Oh, woe unto us! Who has roused us from our sleep [of death]?’” which was the statement of righteous Muslims when they were resurrected. This statement was joined with that of the angels, “[Whereupon they will be told:] ‘This is what the Most Gracious has promised! And His message bearers spoke the truth!’” (Q. 36:52, Asad). This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and al-Farrā’ adopted by Ibn Qutaybah; and (f) tempora, such as the use of a verb in the past tense when they are meant for the present or the future, for example, “God’s judgment is [bound to] come…” (Q. 16:1, Asad), in which the verb atá (lit., “it came”) is meant to be “it will come.”
As we know Ibn Qutaybah believes that the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm know the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt. Therefore, he does not belong to those who believe that the al-ah.ruf al-muqat.t.a‘ah (the disconnected letters) at the beginning of twenty-nine sūrahs in the Qur’ān to be mysterious and inexplicable. He mentions four interpretations of them: They are: (a) the names of the sūrahs to which they belong; (b) Allah’s oaths; (c) letters taken from Allah’s attributes; and (d) letters taken from the attributes of the Qur’ān.
One of the important branches of the sciences of exegesis dealt by Ibn Qutaybah is the homonyms and synonyms in the Qur’ān (al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir fī ’l-Qur’ān) which he calls “words which agree in wording but differ in meaning” (ماَ اْتَفَقَ لَفْظُهُ وَاخْتَلَفَ مَعْنَاه). For example, the term fitnah which basically means “a test,” means shirk (polytheism, idolatry) in the verse: وَالْفِتْنَةُ أَشَدُّ مِنَ الْقَتْلِ (البقرة : ١٩١) “…for polytheism is worse than slaughter.” (Q. 2:191), whereas it means ithm (sin) in the following verse: أَلَا فِي الْفِتْنَةِ سَقَطُوا (التوبة : ٤٩)“…Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen….” (Q. 9:49). With this branch of science many Qur’ānic verses become clear, as the textual meaning is given rather than the literal meaning. This branch of science is so important that al-Zarkashī put it in number four of the forty-seven branches of the Qur’ānic science in his work al-Burhān, whereas al-Suyūt.ī put it number thirty–nine of the eighty branches in his book al-Itqān. It was in this branch of science that Ibn al-Jawzī in his work Nuzhah quoted Ibn Qutaybah by name about fifty times, mainly from his Ta’wīl in which he dealt with forty-four words and their meanings.
As a philologist Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl also deals with thirty-three particles with their various meanings with examples from the Qur’ān and occasionally from poetry as shawāhid. For example, the particle anná has two meanings: (a) kayfa (how), as in أَنَّى يُحْيِي هَذِهِ اللَّهُ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا (البقرة : ٢٥٩) “He said: How could Allah brings this [township] back to life after its death?” (Q. 2:259); (b) min ayna (wherefrom), as in أَنَّى يَكُونُ لَهُ وَلَدٌ (الأنعام : ١٠١) “…where can He have a child from…” (Q. 6:101).
One of the problems in understanding a language is the use of prepositions. Different prepositions make different meanings, such as the word “look” added with prepositions and it becomes “look for,” “look at,” and “look on.” The substitution of these prepositions would change its meaning and could confuse people. Such substitution was dealt with by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl as well as his Adab al-Kātib. He mentions seven particles substituted with other particles without any change of meaning with examples from the Qur’ān. They are: ilá (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until), bi (in, at, on; with; through, by means of), ‘alá (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for), ‘an (off, away, from; out of, about; for), fī. (in; at; on; near; by; within; during), li (for), and min (from). One example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is the verse لَيَجْمَعَنَّكُمْ إِلَى يَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (النساء : ٨٧) “He will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection” (Q. 4:87) in which the prepositions ilá substitutes the preposition fī. Therefore, the expression ilá yawm al-qiyāmah in the above verse means “on the Day of Resurrection” rather than “till the Day of Resurrection.”
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah in his works in general and his work Ta’wīl Mushkil al-Qur’ān in particular has rendered an enormous contribution to Qur’ānic exegesis. This contribution was either by transmitting the knowledge of his teachers in this field of study or by his being an a‘jamī (non-Arab), he has proved in effect his profound knowledge of Arabic philology which is of inestimable value in the study of Qur’ānic exegesis.
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Cooper, John. The Commentary of the Qur’an by Abu Ja‘far Muh.ammad b. Jarir al-T.abari, Being an Abridged Translation of Jāmi‘ al-Bayān ‘an Ta’wīl Āy al-Qur’ān, with introduction and notes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, vol.1
Dawood, N.J., trans. The Quran. Checked and revised by Mahmud Y. Zayid. Beirut: Dar al-Choura, 1980.
Denffer, Ahmad von. ‘Ulūm al-Qur’ān: An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur’ān. Leicester: The Islamic Foundation, 1403/1983.
Gaidner, W.H.T. Al-Ghazzali’s Mishkat al-Anwar ("The Niche for Lights"). A translation with introduction. Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1952.
Hayakawa, Samuel I. Choose the Right Words: A Modern Guide to Synonyms. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
Ibn Khaldun. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated from the Arabic by Franz Rosenthal. 3 vols. New York: Pantheon Books Inc., 1958.
Jeffery, Arthur. Materials for the History of the Text of the Qur’an: The Old Codices. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1937.
Lane, Edward William. Arabic-English Lexicon. Book I, 8 pts. with continuos pagination. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1956.
Lecomte, Gérard. Ibn Qutayba (Mort en 276/889): l’homme, son oevre, ses idées. Damascus: Catholic Printing Press, 1965.
Muir, Sir William. The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline, and Fall. N.p.: Religious, Tract Society, 1891.
Nicholson, Reynold A. A Literary History of the Arabs. Cambridge: the University Press, 1956.
Noldeke, Theodor, and Schwally, Friedrich. Geschichte des Qoran i-ii. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1961.
Pickthall, Muhammad Marmaduke, transl. The Glorious Qur’an. New York: Muslim World League, 1977.
Rodwell, J.M., trans. The Koran. London: J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1978.
Seale, Morris. Qur’an and Bible. London: Croom Helm ِLtd., 1978.
Tengku Jusof, Tengku Ghani. A Critical Examination of five Poems by Imru al-Qays. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, 1990.
Wansbrough, John. Quranic Studies. Oxford: Oxford Uni¬versity Press, 1977.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Bell’s Introduction to the Qur’an. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990.
Williams, John Alden. Islam. New York: George Braziller, 1961.
Young , M.J.L .et al., eds. The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature: Religion, learning and science in the Abbasid period. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
C. Articles
Abdul, Musa O.A. "The Historical Development of Tafsīr." IC 50 (1976), vol. 1 no. 1, 141-¬153.
Ali, Dr. Hashim Amir. "The Mysterious Letters of the Qur’ān." IC 36 (Jan. 1962), iii-iv.
Bellamy, J.A. "The Mysterious Letters of the Koran: Old Abbreviations of the Basmalah." JAOS xciii (1973), 267-285.
Blachère, R. "Al Farrā’." EI2, II, 806-808
Gibb, H.A.R. "Abu ‘Ubayda Ma ‘mar b. al-Muthannā." EI2, I, 158.
Goldfeld, Isaiah, "Muqātil Ibn Sulaymān", Arabic and Islamic Studies, ed. Jacob Mansour, vol. 2. Rumat-Gan: Bar-Ilan University Press, 1978, 1-18.
Jeffery, Arthur. "The Mystic Letters of the Qur’ān." MW xiv (1924), 247-260.
Jones, A. "The Mystical Letters of the Qur’ān." SI xvi (1962), 5-11.
Jullandri, R. "Qur’ānic Exegesis and Classical Tafsīr." IQ xii (1968), 71-109.
Lecomte, G. "Ibn Ķutayba." EI2, 844-949.
Speight, M. "The Opening Verses of the Chapters of the Qur’ān."MW 59/3-4 (1969).
Vaux, B. Carra de. "Al-S.ābi’a." SEI, 477-478.
Wansbrough, John. "Majāz al-Qur’ān: Periphrastic Exegesis." BSOAS xxxiii/2 (1970), 247-266.
Weir, T.H. "Ibn ‘Arabī." SEI, 146-147.
Welch, A.T. and Pearson, J.D. "Al-Kur’an." EI2 5 (1981), 400-432.
APPENDIX 1
AUTHORITIES AND TRANSMITTERS OF THE QUR’AN
Place Authority Transmitters
-------¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Madīnah Nāfi‘ (d. 169/785-786) Warsh (d. 197/813)
Qālūn (d. 220/835)
Makkah Ibn Kathīr (d. 120/738) al-Bazzī (d. 250/864)
(Mecca) Qunbul (d. 291/904)
Damascus Ibn ‘Āmir (d. 118/736) Hishām (d. 242/856-857)
Ibn Dhakwān (d. 245/859)
Bas.rah Abū ‘Amr (d. 154/771) al-D.ūrī (d. 246/860)
al-Sūsī (d. 261/875)
Kūfah ‘Ās.im (d. 128/746) H.afs. (d. 190/806)
Ibn ‘Ayyāsh (d. 194/810)
Kūfah H.amzah (d. 158/775) Khalaf (d. 229/844)
Khallād (d. 220/835)
Kūfah al-Kisā’ī [d. ca. 189/805] al-D.ūrī (d. 240/854-5)
Abu’l-Harith (d. 46/860)
Adopted from:
A. Jones, "The Qur’an - II," Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period, eds. A.F.L. Beeston, T.M. Johnstone et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 244.
APPENDIX 2
GLOSSARY
āh ād, a h.adīth reported by one chain of transmitters
alif al-istifhām, alif as an interrogative particle.
alif al-was.l, (lit., alif of connection), the letter alif which can be omitted, either in pronunciation, spelling, or both, such as ūlī ’l-amr read ulil amr, in modern terminology it is called hamzat al-was.l, conjuctive hamzah.
amr, command, commanding, imperative
amthāl (sing. mathal), parables
‘arūd., prosody
asbāb al-nuzūl, the reasons for revelation; the occasions and circumstances which led to the revelation of the verses of the Qur’ān
as.h.āb al-kalām, the adherents of scholastic theology
as.h.āb al-ra’y, the adherents of personal opinion
as.l, basic meaning, the primary signification
‘a t.f, conjunction
bāt.in, inward meaning
bayān, explanation
dalālah, an indicant, a hint, sense, meaning
d.amīr, pronoun
d.amīr al-sha’n, a pronoun indicating circumstances, e.g., “It is late”
dīwān, collection of poetical work, collection of poetry by a single author or from a single tribe.
fad.ā’il, particular virtue, "excellences"
farā’id. (sing., farīd.ah), religious obligations
fas.āh.ah,. eloquence
fatwá (pl. fatawá). legal opinion
fiqh, Islamic jurisprudence
fuqahā’ (sing., faqīh), Muslim jurists
gharīb, rare, uncommon word or expression
h.adhf, ellipsis
h.adīth, news, a story, and finally a technical term for the tradition of what the Prophet said, did or approved
h.alāl, lawful, permissible
h.arām, unlawful, prohibited
h.udūd (sing., h.add), penal law
al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah, ambiguous letters found in the opening of some sūrahs of the Qur’ān
ibāh.ah, examption
‘ibrah (pl., ‘ibar), deterrent example
ibtidā’ (of) inception, e.g., lām al-ibtidā’ (letter l of inception)
‘iddah, the legally prescribed period of waiting during which a woman may not remarry after being divorced or widowed
idghām, contraction, such as contracting letter n with letter m in min ba‘d and read mim ba‘d
id.mār, making implicit
ih.tijāj, protest
ijtihād, independent judgment, especially in a legal question based upon the interpretation of the Qur’ān and the Sunnah
ijtihād bi ’l-ra’y, speculative thinking
ikhtis.ār, brevity
‘ilm al-tas.rīf, etymology
iltifāt, apostrophe, shifting from one object or pronoun to another, turning the address from one person or group of people to another
imālah, inclining closed vowels to open, such as pronouncing hāk as hék
imām, leader, particularly at prayers.
inshā’, composition
‘iqāb, punishment
i‘rāb, adding vowels, the inflectional terminations of nouns and verbs; desinential (grammatical) inflection
ishmām, ‘giving the flavour’ of one sound to another such as the pronunciation of the vowel u with a trace of i and vice versa, similar to the German ü; e.g., reading rudda as rüdda and h.imār as h.ümār; in the Australian accent "a nice day" is pronounced almost like "a noise die".
isnād, chains of authorities on which a h.adīth (a tradi¬tion or a historical writing) is based; chains of transmitters through whom a h.adīth has been handed down
isrā’iliyyāt legends from Jewish people; Jewish traditions used to amplify Qur’ānic allusions
isti‘ārah, metaphor
istifhām, asking a question
istifhām inkārī, a negative question
istifhām taqrīrī, an affirmative question
is t.ilāh., conventional term, technical term (terminology)
istit.rād, digression
i‘tirād., parenthesis
‘ilm al-‘arūd., Arabic prosody
‘ilm al-tas.rīf,- etymology
‘iz.ah, sermon, advice
iz.hār, pronouncing clearly
jadal, dialectic
jawāb al-shart., a clause answering to an if-clause in syntax
jazm, apocopating
kāfir, unbeliever
kalām, theology, especially the scholastic one
khabar, predicate; news of the past
khalaf, successors; (esp. Muslim scholars of) later generations (approx. after the third/ninth century)
khālafa lafz.uhā rasmahā, irregular orthography
kināyah, metonymy
kunyah, "allusive" name consisting of Abū ("father of") or Umm ("mother of") followed either by a name or describing some prominent characteristic of its bearer
kuttāb, Qur’ānic school
lah.n, solecism, ungrammatical expression
laqab, (earlier) name alluding to a personal characteristic; (later) honorific title
lughat al-‘Arab, the Arabs’ way of expression
mabnī, indeclinable
madhhab (pl., madhāhib), a school of law among Sunnī Muslims
mād.ī, preterite
maghāzī, military expedition, accounts of early battles of Islam, early Muslim expeditions in which the Prophet took part
majāz a way, road, or path; figurative (literary) expression
majāz mursal, a loose trope (e.g,. "hand" used as meaning "a benefit" or "a favour").
malāh.im, apocalyptic h.adīths; tales of eschatological nature related by storytellers
mansūkh, abrogated
marfū‘, in the nominative case
mas.dar, verbal noun
ma‘s.ūm, immune from error, infallible
mawā‘iz. (sing., maw‘iz.ah), exhortations, advice
mathal (pl. amthāl), parable
mawlá (pl., mawālī),- protector; client, freed slave; non-Arab Muslim
maws.ūl, relative pronoun
mubtada’, inchoative, subject
mud.āf, annexed
mud.āf ilayh, what is annexed to, complements of a prefixed noun
mud.āri‘, imperfect verb
mufassir, commentator, interpreter, Qur’ānic exegete
muh.aqqiq, an effective investigator (researcher)
muh.kam, parts of the Qur’ān which had a clear meaning
mujtahid, a legist who exercises ijtihād
mulh.idīn, (sing. mulh.id) heretics, unbelievers
mus.h.af, Qur’ānic codex
Mus.h.af al-Imām: the Master Copy, the standard copy of the Qur’ān, namely, the copy of ‘Uthmān
mut.ābaqah, antithesis
mutakallim, scholastic theologian
mutashābih (pl., mutashābihāt), ambiguous obscure; ambiguous verse in the Qur’ān
mutawātir, a tradition narrated by many reliable authorities that the possibilities of its being fabricated by collusion is out of question. This is the reliable tradition among Muslims.
Mu‘tazilah, theological school which created the speculative dogmatics of Islam
nah.w, grammar, syntax
nafy, negation
nāsikh, abrogating
nas.rāniyyāt, legends from Christians
naz.ar, insight, reason
nisbah, derivative form (ending in -i) of a name or other noun
Qadarīs, a group of teachers of the ‘Abbāsī period who championed free will against the theory of predestination; they later merged with the Mu‘tazilīs
qād .ī, a judge, a judge of a court
qād .ī ’l-qud.āt, (lit., judge of judges), chief judge
qāri’ (pl., qurrā’), reader, reciter of the Qur’ān
qas.as., narrative, tale, story
qas.s.ās., storytellers, relaters of qis.as.
qirā’ah, recitation of the Qur’ān; variant reading of the Qur’ān
qirā’ah munkarah, a rejected reading, a reading which was temporarily permitted in the early period of Islam only to people who were not able to memorize or articulate the Qur’ān properly
qis.s.ah (pl., qis.as.) story, narrative tale, in particular; in plural, the narrative of the Qur’ān
qurrā’ (sing., qāri’), readers, reciters of the Qur’ān
rāsikh (pl., rasikhūn) fī ’l-‘ilm, a person who is conversant with knowledge, firmly grounded in knowledge (A.Y. Ali), deeply rooted in knowledge (M. Asad) or of sound instruction (M. Pickthall)
ra’y, personal opinion
rithā’, lamentation, elegiac poetry
s.ah.ābah (sing., s.ah.ābī), companions of the Prophet
saj‘, rhymed prose
salaf, (lit. predecessors), the first three generations of the s.ah.abah, tābi‘īn, and tābi‘ī ’l-tābi‘īn
s.alāh., prayer
sanad, (see isnād)
shakl, consonantal outline, consonantal skeleton, such as for بشر (bashar), نسر (nasr) andيسر (yusr).
sharī‘ah, Islamic law
shawāhid (sing., shāhid), quotations serving as textual evidence
shifā’, healing
s.ilah, a syndetic relative clause; the connection of a verb with the object complement, whether immediate or by means of a preposition; the complement of a maws.ūl (conjunct)
s.uh.uf (sing., s.ah.īfah), leaves; pages; sheets, scrolls, particularly those of the Qur’ān
sunnah, way, path; customary practice, particularly that of the Prophet; usage sanctioned by tradition; the sayings and doings of the Prophet which have been established as legally binding
Sunnī, Muslim who believes that the sunnah cannot be over-ridden by any human authority
sūrah, chapter of the Qur’ān
s.ūrah, form, representation, picture
tābi‘īn (sing., tābi‘ī), people succeeding the generation of the s.ah.ābah
tābi‘ī ’l-tābi‘īn, (lit., "followers of the followers"), the generation after that of the tābi‘īn
tadabbur, reflection
tad.mīn, insertion
tafkhīm, emphatic pronunciation of a consonant, such as the English pronunciation of c, p and t in "capital", "people" and "time" (rather than in "logic", "open" and "meter".
tafsīr, commentary, interpretation; Qur’ānic exegesis
takhfīf, the easing in reading by dropping a vowel, such as reading bushran for bushuran; in English it is like pronouncing "transptation" for "transportation".
takrār, repetition
tamthīl, analogy, comparison, likening
tanwīn, nunation, making clear the an, in or un ending of a word, e.g., rajul with tanwīn becomes rajulan, rajulin, and rajulun
taqrīr, affirmation
targhīb, encouragement of good
tarhīb, discouragement of evil
ta‘rī d., allusion
tarqīq, softening the pronunciation of a word (opposite of tafkhīm), e.g., letter t in "better"
tashbīh, simile; the error of asserting that Allah resembles created things in any way, anthropomorphism
tas.rīf, the conjugation of a verb
tawātur, (see mutāwatir)
tawbīkh, reproach, reprimand, rebuke
tawqīf, the subject of divine revelation
thawāb, reward
tubba‘ (pl., tabābi‘ah), the title of the pre-Islamic Himyarite kings of the Yemen
‘ulamā’ (sing., ‘ālim), scholars, men of learning, savants, the theologians and teachers of Islam
wa‘d, promise
wa‘īd, threat
wāw al-qasam, adjurative particle
wud.ū’, ablution
wujūh al-qirā’ah, variant readings; variae lectiones
zabāniyah, infernal attendants of Hell
zajr, prohibition
z.ālim, transgressor
zawj, a pair or one of a pair
zindīq, a heretic, a dualist, particularly a Manichee.
Sunday, January 8, 2012
IBN QUTAHBAH'S CONTRIBUTION TO QUR'ANIC EXEGESIS, CH. IV
CHAPTER IV
IBN QUTAYBAH'S TREATISE OF AMBIGUOUS
LETTERS, WORDS, AND PARTICLES IN
THE VERSES OF THE QUR’ĀN
This chapter examines letters assumed to be absurd and stylistically spoiling, words which have many different meanings, meanings of particles, and the substitution of particles in the verses of the Qur’ān as follows:
A. Letters Assumed to Be Absurd and
Stylistically Spoiling
The main concern of Ibn Qutaybah on this subject is the letters of the alphabet at the beginning of twenty-nine sūrahs in the Qur’ān, technically called by the exegetes al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah (the disconnected letters) and fawātih. al-suwar (the openings of the chapters). The term alphabet itself is derived from the first and the second letters of the Greek alphabet, namely, alpha (, ), and beta (, ), corresponding to letter A and B respectively in the Latin alphabet. The Arabic alphabet is called h.urūf al-mu‘jam (lit., "the letters of the dictionary"), al-h.urūf al-hijā’īyah (lit., "letters put in successive order"), and al-h.urūf al-abjadīyah (lit., "the letters put in the abjd order"), which is the classical Arabic alphabetical order. They and their numerical values are as follows: ا (1) ب (2), ج (3), د (4), هـ (5), و (6), ز (7), ح (8), ط (9), ي (10), ك (20), ل (30), م (40), ن (50), س (60), ع(70), ف (80), ص (90), ق (100),ر (200),ش (300), ت (400), ث (500), خ (600), ذ (700), ض (800), ظ (900), and غ (1000). They are combined together for easy memorisation as follows: اَبْجَدْ هَوَّزْ حُطِّيْ كَلَمَنْ سَعَفَصْ قَرَشَتْ ثَخِذٌ ضظِغٌ. This classical order is closer to the Greek alphabetical order than the modern one which is as follows: ا ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن هـ و ي .
There are fourteen letters of the Arabic alphabet which occur in fourteen different combinations. These letters are: ا , ل , م , ر , ك , ح , ي , ع , ص , ط , س , ق , ن , and هـ . They are always pronounced singly, such as: nūn for N, t.ā-hā for T.-H, and alif-lām-mīm, for A-L-M. Their combinations and the sūrahs in which they are located are as follows: الـم (2, 3, 29, 30, 31, and 32); الـر (10, 11, 12, 14, and 15); المـر (13); المص (7); حـم (40, 41, 43, 44, 45, and 46); حم عسق (42); كهيعص (19); ن (68); ق (50); ص (38), طـس (27); طسم (26, and 28); طـه (20), and يـس (36).
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four different views concerning these letters. He states that each of these views has its own merit, which are as follows: These letters are the names of the sūrahs to which they belong; they are Allah's oaths; they are letters taken from Allah's attributes, and they are letters taken from the attributes of the Qur’ān. According to the first view, the letter or combined letters at the beginning of a certain sūrah is the name of that sūrah itself. Sūrat al-A‘rāf (sūrah 7), for example, is also called Sūrat المص. However, whenever the same letters occur at the beginning of more than one surah, the usual name of that surah is added to it, for example, الم اْلبَقَرَة (sūrah 2), الم آل عِمْرَان (sūrah 3), and السَّجْدَة حم (sūrah 41).[1] This is the view of Zayd ibn Aslam (d. 136/754).[2]
With regard to the second view, Ibn Qutaybah says that it means that Allah's oath includes all the letters of the alphabet by mentioning some of them. It is like someone saying that he has learned the ABC, meaning all the letters of the alphabet, or that he had read al-h.amdu lillāh, meaning the whole introductory sūrah of the Qur’ān.[3] The reason for Allah's oaths with these letters is to indicate their nobility and merit (لِشَرَفِهَا وَفَضْلِهَا) "because they are the foundation of His Scriptures revealed in various languages, the bases of His beautiful names and exalted attributes, and the origins of the languages of nations by which they know each other, remember and believe in His Oneness..." [4] The Qur’ānic verse (البقرة : ١) الم. ذَلِكَ الْكِتَابُ لَا رَيْبَ فِيهِ , for example, according to this view, means "By the letters of the alphabet, it is the book where there is no doubt in it..." (Q. 2:1)[5]
With regard to the third view, the use of letters of the alphabet to indicate Allah's attributes is praised by Ibn Qutaybah as an art of abbreviating words with letters commonly practised among the Arabs.[6] One of the many examples given by him is the combined letters كهيعص. According to the interpretation attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, each of these letters respectively stands for an attribute of Allah, namely, ك stands for كَافٍ (Efficient), هـ for هَادٍ (Guiding), ي for حَكِيْم (Wise), ع for عَلِيْم (All-knowing), and ص for صَادِق (truthful).[7]
Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are: ا , ب , ج , and م which stands respectively for آلاءُ الله (Allah's sign), بَهَاءُ الله (Allah's magnificence), جَمَالُ الله (Allah's beauty), and مَجْدُ الله (Allah's glory); حم stands for حَلِيْم (Gentle) and مَجِيْد (Exalted), two attributes of Allah.[8] It is also reported that according to Ibn ‘Abbās الـم is the abbreviation of “Allah, Jibril, and Muhammad”. Another interpretation attributed to him is that the الـم stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَعْلَم (I, Allah, know), الـر stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَرَى (I, Allah, see), and المـص stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَفْصِل (I, Allah, decide). This interpretation is chosen by al-Zajjāj who said that every letter should have a meaning.[9]
The fourth view is that of al-Kalbī who says that the combination of letters in كهيعص means that the Qur’ān is an efficient, guiding, wise, knowing, and truthful book [10](كِتَابٌ كَافٍ هَـادٍ حَكِـيْمٌ عَلِيْمٌ صَـاِدق). Instead of H.akīm, the letter y stands for يَدُهُ فَوْقَ أَيْدِيْهِم ْ ("His Hand is above their hands") is also attributed to al-Kalbī.[11] However, al-Qurt.ubī states that according to al-Kalbī, these letters are of Allah's names by which He made His oath.[12]
Some exegetes whom Ibn Qutaybah does not identify say that طـه , يـس , and letter ن respectively means يَا رَجُلُ ("O man"), يَا إِنْسَا نُ ("O human being"), and الدَّوَاة (the inkwell).[13] According to Ibn ‘Abbās as reported by ‘Ikrimah, طـه which is read t.āhā and means يَا رَجُـلُ is the language of H.abashah (Abyssinia, Ethiopia), whereas in another report by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, also from Ibn ‘Abbās, it is in the Nabatean language. Similarly, يـس which is read yā-sīn meaning "O human being" is the language of T.ayy according to Ibn ‘Abbās (or H.abashah as reported by Ibn Mardawayh). The letter ن which is read nūn is a Persian word أنون meaning اصْنَعُ مَا شِئْتُ ("I do whatever I want") according to al-D.ah.h.āk as reported by al-Kirmānī.[14]
Another group of scholars claim that the interpretation of al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah is known to Allah alone. ‘Āmir al-Sha‘bī, Sufyān al-Thawrī, and a group of traditionists are reported to have said that these letters "...are Allah's secret in the Qur’ān, and Allah has a secret in each of His Books. They are included among ambiguous things (الْمُتَشَابِهَات) known to Allah alone, which is not to be talked about, but to be believed and read as they are revealed".[15] It is also reported that Abū Bakr and ‘Alī held the same view, and Abū ’l-Layth al-Samarqandī reports that ‘Umar, ‘Uthmān, and Ibn Mas‘ūd say that the al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah are among the hidden things upon which no commentary should be given. Abū H.ātim says that these letters are found in the opening of some sūrahs, but what Allah means by them is not for us to know. Another scholar, Abū Bakr al-Anbārī, says that there are letters in the Qur’ān the meaning of which are hidden from the whole world as a test from Allah; whoever believes in them will be rewarded and be pleased, and those who disbelieve and doubt them will become sinful and be far away (from Allah's guidance). [16]
According to the contemporary scholar Dr. Mus.t.afá Zayd, the most acceptable view on this subject is that these letters are a symbol of challenge; with them Allah challenged the Arab idolaters to produce a chapter similar to that of the Qur’ān by using the same letters of the alphabet used in the Qur’ān, if they kept rejecting the Qur’ān as a revelation from Him. These fourteen letters are half and representing the whole twenty-eight letters of the alphabet. They are found at the beginning of the sūrahs which speak about the Qur’ān, either at the beginning or in the middle of the respective sūrahs.[17]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the view of scholars who consider these al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah to be mysterious and inexplicable. This is most probably due to his conviction that the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt are known by the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm, as mentioned earlier in the second chapter of this study.
The Orientalists have many different theories about these mysterious letters. Noldeke's theory which he later abandoned is that they are the names of the owners of the sheets of the Qur’ān. He states that الر stands for al-Zubayr, المر stands for al-Mughīrah, طـه stands for T.alh.ah ibn ‘Ubayd Allāh, and حـم as well as letter ن stands for ‘Abd al-Rah.mān.[18]
Another Orientalist, Morris Seale, suggests that they are mnemonic devices as a guide to the contents of the sūrah. For example, in sūrat al-Shu‘arā’ (Poets, Q. 26) and sūrat al-Qas.as. (Story, Q. 28), the first verse in these two chapters is the combination of letters طسـم . These letters stand for T.ūr Sinā’ (Mount Sinai) and Mūsá (Moses), the two main subjects of these sūrahs. In sūrat Maryam (Mary, Q. 19) the first verse is the combination of letters كهيعص . These five letters, as suggested by Seale, are introductory letters to the contents of this chapter: the priest Zacharia (Zakarīyā), the temple, the birth of John (Yah.yá), Jesus son of Mary (‘Īsá ibn Maryam) and Abraham as “a man of truth”صِدِّيْق) ). Each letter stands for these five contents. ك stands for كَاهِن (a priest in the Hebrew sense rather than in Arabic sense of a soothsayer), referring to Zakarīyā; هـ stands for هَيْكَل (a temple, although the word mih.rāb is used in this sūrah); ي stands for يَحْيَ; ع stands for عِيْسَى ; and ص stands for صِدِّيْق who was Abraham. Seale admits that this is only a conjecture.[19]
James A. Bellamy had another theory. He proposed that these letters "were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, some of which became corrupt early in the course of transmission". He assumes that since only the readers of Kūfah who regarded يس , حـم, and حم عسق as āyāt (Qur’ānic verses) with the exclusion of other groups of letters, whereas the non-Kūfan readers did not call any of them an āyah (a verse), but rather introductions to the sūrahs ,[20] they are, like the basmalah, not part of the Qur’ān. Then to suit his theory, traditions mentioning these mysterious letters are rejected, and the occurrence of corruption in the Qur’ān is assumed.[21]
In my view, when the non-Kūfan readers did not call these letters āyāt, but fawātih. suwar, it is because they are not sufficient to make a word to constitute an āyah, as the minimum requirement for an āyah is one word. The point of the discussion is whether the possibility of a word, let alone a letter, can constitute an āyah. Here Ibn al-Munayyar and Abū ‘Amr al-Dānī said that there is no word which is itself an āyah in the Qur’ān except مُدْهَامَّتِان (Q. 55:64), and that al-Zamakhsharī says that knowing the āyāt is based on tawqīf (revelation), and there is no room for qiyās (analogy) in it.[22] Moreover, when al-Suyūt.ī said that they agreed onيَاأَيُّهَا اْلمُدَّثِّر as an āyah, but disagreed on [يَا أَيُّهَا اْلمُزَّمِّل [23, it does not mean that the latter is not a part of the Qur’ān, but rather it is not sufficient to be counted as one āyah.
Bellamy's theory is not plausible, either. He incorrectly developed the interpretation of Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr that these mysterious letters are Allah's names, such as الر, حم and ن, the combination of which makes الرَّحْمَن (al-Rah.mān(, one of the names of Allah and His attributes.[24] Since only four out of the nineteen letters of the basmalah do not belong to Allah's names, he builds his theory that these mysterious letters were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, as mentioned earlier.
Montgomery Watt, after explaining and evaluating various theories of some Orientalists, such as Hirschfeld, Edward Goossens, Nöldeke and Alan Jones, admitted to the mysterious nature of these letters. He concluded: "We end where we began; the letters are mysterious, and have so far baffled interpretation."[25]
B. Words which Have Many Different Meanings
This subject is usually treated as one of the branches of the sciences of tafsīr called al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir fī ’l-Qur’ān, usually translated as "homonyms and synonyms in the Qur’ān". Wujūh (sing. wajh, "face", "meaning", "aspect") are words which agree in wording but differ in meaning (مَا اتَّفَقَ لَفْظُـهُ وَاخْتَلَفَ مَعْنَاه); for example, the word s.alāh in the verse وَيُقِيمُونَ الصَّلَاةَ (البقرة : ٣) "and are constant in prayer" (Q. 2:3) has a different meaning from s.alāh in the following verse: قَالُوا يَا شُعَيْبُ أَصَلَاتُكَ تَأْمُرُكَ أَنْ نَتْرُكَ مَا يَعْبُدُ آَبَاؤُنَا (هود : ٨٧) "Said they: 'O Shu‘ayb! Does thy [habit of] praying compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,..." (Q. 11:87). In the first verse s.alāh means the established and obligatory prayer, whereas in the second, Shu‘ayb's s.alāh means his religion. [26]
Naz.ā’ir (sing. naz.īr, similar, equivalent, matching) are al-alfāz. al-mushtarikah, namely, words which indicate many different things equally, such as the word ‘ayn which equally means "eye", "spring" (the place where water comes out from the ground), "the sun itself", and "letter ع". They also include al-alfāz. al-mutawat.i’ah (Latin: denoteta; sing. denotatum), namely, words that indicate many different things with one shared meaning, such as the word insān (man) which is applied to Zayd, ‘Umar, etc. Synonymous words (al-alfāz. al-mutarādifah) are also included in the naz.ā’ir, such as the words khamr, rāh., and ‘aqqār, which all mean one thing, the intoxicant made from raisins. Wujūh refers to a word with many different meanings, whereas naz.ā’ir refers to a word with the same concept but different wordings.[27]
This branch of science is very important in studying the Qur’ān. Abū ’l-Dardā’ and Muqātil ibn Sulaymān were reported to have said that a man would not become a true faqīh until he knew the wujūh in the Qur’ān.[28] Al-Zarkashī ranked it number four among the forty-seven branches of Qur’ānic science in his work al-Burhān, whereas al-Suyūt.ī placed it at number thrity-nine of the eighty branches in his work al-Itqān.
Among the scholars of this branch of science were: Muh.ammad ibn al-Sā’ib al-Kalbī (d. 146/763), Muqātil ibn Sulaymān al-Balkhī (d. 150/767), Abū al-‘Abbās Muh.ammad ibn Yazīd ibn al-Mubarrad (d. 285/898), Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Naqqāsh (d. 351/962), Abū al-Fad.l Bakr ibn Muh.ammad al-Bukhārī (d. 514/1120-1), Ah.mad ibn Fāris (d. 395/1005), Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-H.usayn al-Dāmaghānī (d. 478/1085-6), Abū ’l-H.asan ‘Alī al-Zaghwānī (d. 527/1133), Ibn al-Jawzī (d. 597/1201) and Abū ’l-Fad.l Hubaysh [al-]Tiflīsī (from Tiflis or Tbilisi, the capital of the present Republic of Georgia; d. 600/1204 or 629/1232).
Ibn Qutaybah mentions forty-four words which have many different meanings or wujūh in his Ta’wīl. These words and their meanings are as follows:
1. اْلقَضَـاء (decree)
The basic or primary meaning of qad.ā’ is "finishing something entirely, either by word or by deed". [29] Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of the verb qad.á which is derived from the mas.dar (verbal noun) qad.ā’, as follows:
a. حَـتَمَ (to decree, to ordain) which is the basic meaning of qad.á, as in فَيُمْسِكُ الَّتِي قَضَى عَلَيْهَا الْمَوْتَ (الزمر : ٤٢)"... thus, He withholds [from life] those upon whom He has decreed death,..." (Q. 39:42).[30]
b. أَمَـرَto order, to command), as in وَقَضَى رَبُّكَ أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا إِيَّاهُ (الإسراء : ٢٣) "For thy Sustainer has ordered that you shall worship none but Him." (Q. 17:23).[31] This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan, and Qatādah, according to al-T.abarsī.[32] According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, who mentions ten meanings of قَضَى, this term in the above verse means وَصَّى (entrust, direct, recommend, charge, enjoin). [33] This is also the view of the Mujāhid, based on the variant readings of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, Ibn Mas‘ūd and al-D.ah.h.āk.[34]
c. أَعْـلَمَ (to inform), as in وَقَضَيْنَا إِلَى بَنِي إِسْرَائِيلَ فِي الْكِتَابِ لَتُفْسِدُنَّ فِي الْأَرْضِ مَرَّتَيْنِ وَلَتَعْلُنَّ عُلُوًّا كَبِيرًا (الإسراء : ٤) "And We made [this] known to the children of Israel through revelation: 'Twice, indeed, will you spread corruption on earth and will indeed become grossly overbearing.’" (Q. 17:4). This view of Ibn Qutaybah is also that of Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Farrā’, al-T.abarsī, Ibn Kathīr, al-Suyūt.ī, and Yahyá ibn Sallām, who uses the termأَخْبَرَ, the synonym of [35] أَعْلَمَ. Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī maintain that since Allah informed the children of Israel that they would commit corruption in the future, its occurrence was a decree from Him. [36]
d. صَـنَعَ (to make, to do), as in فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَوَاتٍ (حم : ١٢)" And He [it is Who] made them completely seven heavens." (Q. 41:12).[37] Then the meaning eveloped and became "to accomplish, to complete, to fulfil". The dead person is called قَضَى أَجَلَه he has completed his appointed time", and قَضَى نَحْبَه “he has fulfilled (redeemed) his pledge (by death)." (Q. 33:23).[38]
2. اْلهُـدَى (guidance)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of hudá, as follows:
a. أَرْشَـدَ (to guide), which is the basic meaning of hudá , as in قَالَ عَسَى رَبِّي أَنْ يَهْدِيَنِي سَوَاءَ السَّبِيلِ (القصص : ٢٢) "... he said [to himself]: 'It may well be that my Sustainer will [thus] guide me onto the right path!'" (Q. 28:22),[39] namely, the road to Madyan. [40]
b. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْبَـَيان (to guide by means of explanation), as in وَأَمَّا ثَمُودُ فَهَدَيْنَاهُمْ فَاسْتَحَبُّوا الْعَمَى عَلَى الْهُدَى (حم : ١٧) "And as for [the tribe of] Thamūd, We offered them guidance [by means of explanation], but they chose blindness in preference to the guidance:..." (Q. 41:17).[41] According to Qatādah fahadaynāhum means "We have explained to them the way to virtue as well as evil," whereas according to Ibn ‘Abbās, al-Suddī and Ibn Zayd it means "We have explained to them the truth." [42]
c. أَرْشـَدَ بِالدُّعـَاء (to guide by means of calling), as in إِنَّمَا أَنْتَ مُنْذِرٌ وَلِكُلِّ قَوْمٍ هَادٍ (الرعد : ٧) ".... Thou art a warner only; and for every folk a guide." (Q. 13:7, Pickthall).[43] The guide meant in this verse is Allah according to Ibn ‘Abbās, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, al-D.ah.h.āk and Mujāhid, whereas according to Qatādah, al-Zajjāj, Ibn Zayd and Ibn ‘Abbās in another report, it is a prophet sent to his people. Another view says that a guide here means any person who calls people to the truth. [44]
d. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْإلْهـَام (to guide by means of inspiration), as in قَالَ رَبُّنَا الَّذِي أَعْطَى كُلَّ شَيْءٍ خَلْقَهُ ثُمَّ هَدَى (طه : ٥٠) "He replied: Our Sustainer is He Who gives unto everything [that exists] its true nature and form, and thereupon guides it." (Q. 20:50), namely, by means of inspiration.[45] Muh.ammad Asad translates khalqahu as "its true nature and form", and Ibn Qutaybah, giving his commentary on it, said that it means "its form from the females (of its species)", namely, every creature is created and formed inside its mother's womb according to her species. The inspiration meant in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah, Ibn ‘Abbās, al-Suddī and al-Farrā’, is the sexual instinct among creatures towards their own species.[46] However, Ibn Qutaybah also mentions another interpretation, namely, "the inspiration to look for pasture and to avoid danger (طَلَبُ الْمَرْعَى وَ تَوَقِّى اْلمَهَالِك)". This is similar to the view of Tiflīsī and al-Suyūt.ī when they said that hadá in the above verse means "the inspiration to look for food".[47] The third interpretation is that of Mujāhid, ‘At.ā’, Muqātil, and Yah.yá ibn Sallām which is a combination of the two previous interpretations. [48]
In the following verse وَالَّذِي قَدَّرَ فَهَدَى (الأعلى : ٣) “and Who determines the nature [of all that exists], and thereupon guides it [towards its fulfilment]" (Q. 87:3) the guidance in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah is the inspiration to approach the females, namely, the sexual instinct. This is also the view of Muqātil, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Kalbī, al-Farrā’ and Tiflīsī.[49] In my view, the meaning of hadá in this type of Qur’anīc verse is the natural instinct given to every creature to preserve its life and species in particular, and to fulfil its nature in general, because it includes both views mentioned above.
e. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْإمْضَـاء (to guide by means of doing), as in (يوسف : ٥٢) وَأَنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَهْدِي كَيْدَ الْخَائِنِينَ “... and that Allah does not bless with His guidance the artful schemes of those who betray their trust." (Q. 12:52). It means that Allah will not make the artful schemes of the betrayers work. Another interpretation is that it means Allah will not make it proper for them. [50]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions twenty-four meanings of hadá in his work Nuzhah, but mentions fourteen only in his work Qurrah. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Zarkashī, al-Suyūt.ī, and Tiflīsī mention seventeen meanings, whereas al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn Qutaybah mention respectively sixteen and four meanings. Ibn Qutaybah deals with this word very briefly: less than one-fifth of the total number of its meanings.[51]
3. اْلأُمَّـة (nation, people, community)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us five meanings of ummah as follows:
a. الصِّنْفُ مِنَ النَّـاِس وَ الْجَمَـاعَة (a category of people, a community), which is the basic meaning of the term ummah, as in كَانَ النَّاسُ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً فَبَعَثَ اللَّهُ النَّبِيِّينَ (البقرة : ٢١٣) "All mankind were once a single community; [then they began to differ] whereupon Allah raised up the prophets..." (Q.2:213). According to Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Jawzī, ummah here means millah (religion); al-T.abarsī says ummah wāh.idah means ‘alá millah wāh.idah (belonging to one religion), whereas al-Zamakhsharī does not interpret ummah, probably retaining its basic meaning as mentioned above. A question arises: what religion did people embrace in the above verse? It was the true religion (Islam), according to Ibn ‘Abbās in one report, Qatādah, Mujāhid, ‘Ikrmah and al-D.ah.h.āk; this is the interpretation chosen by Tiflīsī and Ibn Kathīr. This view is supported with ‘Abd Allāh ibn Mas‘ūd's - or, according to Ibn Kathīr, Ubayy ibn Ka‘b's - variant reading kāna ’l-nāsu ummatan wāh.idatan fa’khtalafū with the addition of fa’khtalafū ("then they disagreed"). The other interpretation is that the community in the above verse followed disbelief; this is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās in another report and also that of al-H.asan. This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī when they say that ummah wāh.idah means s.infan wāh.idan fī ’l-d.alāl ("a kind of people in error").[52]
b. اْلحِـْين (a period of time), as in وَادَّكَرَ بَعْدَ أُمَّةٍ (يوسف : ٤٥) "... and he [suddenly] remembered [Joseph] after a (long) period of time..." (Q. 12:45).[53] This period was said to have been seven years.[54] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan, Mujāhid, and Qatādah.[55] This period of time can mean "years", as inوَلَئِنْ أَخَّرْنَا َنْهُمُ الْعَذَابَ إِلَى أُمَّةٍ مَعْدُودَةٍ (هود : ٨) “And if We defer their suffering until a reckoned period of time..." (Q. 11:8). It means reckoned years.[56] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the term ummah meaning “years” in the above verse is the language of Azdshanū’ah, one of the four branches of Azd, an ancient Arab tribe living in Yemen.[57] Tiflīsī shares Ibn Qutaybah's view on the two verses above.[58] Ibn al-Jawzī, however, says that the word ummah in the above verses means "a period of time" which is contrary to the view of al-Dāmaghānī who says that it means in both verses "years." [59] However, a variant reading attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, ‘Ikrīmah and al-D.ah.h.āk is ba‘da amahin and ba‘da amhin, meaning "after forgetting" [60] (بَعْدَ نِسْيَان). According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the term ummah meaning nisyān (“forgetting”) in the above verse is the language of Tamīm and Qays (ibn) ‘Aylān. [61]
c. الإمَـام (leader, chief, head and commander), as in إِنَّ إِبْرَاهِيمَ كَانَ أُمَّةً قَانِتًا لِلَّهِ (النحل : ١٢٠) “Verily, Abraham was a leader, obedient to Allah,..." (Q. 16:120). This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and Abū ‘Ubaydah as well as Qatādah according to Yah.yá ibn Sallām.[62] This is also the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[63] It means people followed his examples. Prophet Abraham was referred to as ummah because he and the people who followed him constituted a community, so that he was the founder of that ummah. It is also said that he was called an ummah because he possessed the good qualities of an ummah. He was an ummah himself, as he represented an ummah. [64] He was the only believer when other people disbelieved; therefore he was an ummah, and this is the view of Mujāhid. Another view is that he was an ummah because he was an example and a teacher to the people. [65]
According to Ibn Mas‘ūd and Ibn ‘Umar the term ummah means respectively "the person who teaches good things" (مُعَلِّمُ اْلخَيْر) and "the person who teaches people their religion" [66] (الَّذِيْ يُعَلِّمُ النَّاسَ دِيْنَهُمْ).
d. Despite the difference of interpretations, they all complement each other and serve to broaden the meaning of the verse.
e. جَـمَاعَةٌ مِنَ اْلعُـلَمَاء (a group of ‘ulamā’), as in َلْتَكُنْ مِنْكُمْ أُمَّةٌ يَدْعُونَ إِلَى الْخَيْرِ (آل عمران : ١٠٤) "And that there might grow out of you a group of ‘ulamā’ who teach all that is good..." (Q. 3:104). They are, according to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, a group of selected people with knowledge and good work who become examples for others.[67] There are two different views concerning meaning of the particle min in this verse: (1) lil-tab‘īd. (a partition min), namely, "some", so that the verse means that some of the Muslims should establish a group of ‘ulamā’ to teach people virtuous deeds, as this duty is fard. kifāyah, a duty that should be carried out by a group of Muslims only, in this case, the ‘ulamā’. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Qurt.ubī; [68] (2) lil-tabyīn (an explanatory min), so that the verse means "an ummah inviting unto all that is good might grow out of you". In other words, "be an ummah that invite unto all that is good". [69]
f. الدِّيْـن (the religion), as in إِنَّا وَجَدْنَا آَبَاءَنَا عَلَى أُمَّةٍ وَإِنَّا عَلَى آَثَارِهِمْ مُقْتَدُونَ (الزخرف : ٢٣) "... Behold, we found our forefathers following one religion, and, verily, it is but in their footsteps that we follow!" (Q. 43:23).[70] Abū ‘Ubaydah interprets عَلَى أُمَّة as عَلَى مِلَّةٍ وَ اسْتِقَامَة ("following one religion and uprightness"). [71] Al-Farrā‘ and al-Zamakhsharī give also the variant reading immah beside ummah. According to al-Farrā’, ummah is the reading of the qurrā’ except Mujāhid, as well as ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azīz who read immah.[72] Al-Zamakhsharī states that both ummah and immah come from the root amma ("to intend"). Ummah means "the intended way", while immah means "the condition of the person who has the intention". Al-Zamakhsharī also gives us another interpretation of the term ‘alá ummah, namely,عَلَى نِعْمَةٍ وَ اسْتِقَامَة ("in good living and good condition").[73] The expression fulān lā ummata lahu means "So-and-so has no religion."[74] As a shāhid from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-Nābighah in which ummah means religion, as follows:
حَلَفْتُ فَلَمْ أَتْرُكْ لِنَفْسِكَ رِيْبَةً * وَ هَلْ يَأْثَمَنْ ذُوْ أُمَّةٍ وَ هُوَ طَائِعُ؟
“I have sworn so that I would not leave any doubt in your
mind; will the person who has a religion verily commit a sin
while he [at the same time] is obeying [his religion]?” [75]
According to Ibn Fāris, instead of ummah, it should be read immah to mean "a religion" in this poem, for ummah here means "a dominating tradition." [76] A similar expression is wa hal yastawī dhū ummah wa kafūr, meaning "And are one who has religion and one who is an infidel equal?" [77]
Originally, ummah was said of a group of people belonging to one religion, then later on was meant the religion itself, as in (المؤمنون : ٥٢) وَإِنَّ هَذِهِ أُمَّتُكُمْ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً “And verily, this religion of yours is one religion ...” (Q. 23:52).[78] This is also the interpretation of al-H.asan, Ibn Jurayj, Yah.yá ibn Sallām and Ibn Kathīr.[79]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of ummah. Ibn al-Jawzī also mentions five, while Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī mention nine, but they do not include "a group of ‘ulamā’" as one of its wujūh.
4. اْلعَهْـد (covenant)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of ‘ahd, as follows:
a. الْأَمَـان (assurance of security, safety, peace, protection) as in فَأَتِمُّوا إِلَيْهِمْ عَهْدَهُمْ إِلَى مُدَّتِهِمْ (التوبة : ٤) "...observe, then, your security with them until the end of the term agreed with them..." (Q. 9:4).[80] According to Tiflīsī the meaning of ‘ahd in this verse is amānah (loyalty),[81] whereas according to al-Suyūt.ī it means mīthāq (agreement, covenant).[82]
b. اْليَمِـيْن (oath, promise) as in وَأَوْفُوا بِعَهْدِ اللَّهِ إِذَا عَاهَدْتُمْ "and fulfil your oath with Allah when you make the oath," as the verse continues with وَلَا تَنْقُضُوا الْأَيْمَانَ بَعْدَ تَوْكِيدِهَا (النحل : ٩١) "... and do not break [your] oaths after having [freely] confirmed them..." (Q. 16:91). [83]
c. اْلوَصِـَّية (injunction, instruction, advice), as in أَلَمْ أَعْهَدْ إِلَيْكُمْ يَا بَنِي آَدَمَ أَنْ لَا تَعْبُدُوا الشَّيْطَانَ (يس : ٦٠) "Did I not enjoin you, O you children of Adam, that you should not worship Satan..." (Q. 36:60).[84]
d. الْحِـفَاظ (protection of honour), as in the h.adīth إنَّ حُسْنَ اْلعَهْدِ مِنَ اْلإْيمَان "Verily, the protection of honour is a part of faith."[85]
e. الزَّمـَان (time) as in the expression كَانَ ذَلِكَ فَي عَهْدِ فُلاَن ("That happened in the time of So-and-so").[86]
f. اْلمِيـْثَاق (agreement, covenant), as in قَالَ إِنِّي جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًا قَالَ وَمِنْ ذُرِّيَّتِي قَالَ لَا يَنَالُ عَهْدِي الظَّالِمِينَ (البقرة : ١٢٤) "... He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.' Abraham asked: 'And [wilt Thou make leaders] of my offspring as well?' [Allah] answered: 'My covenant does not embrace the evildoers.'" (Q. 2:124). It means that wrong doers among his descendants will be excluded from Allah's covenant [87] or, according to Mujāhid and Ibn al-Jawzī, will be excluded from the leadership and prophethood respectively.[88]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions seven meanings of the term ‘ahd in his work Nuzhah, whereas Ibn Qutaybah, al-Dāmaghānī, and al-Tiflīsī mentions six meanings in their respective works. Two meanings given by Ibn Qutaybah, namely, al-h.ifāz. and al-zamān, both without any example from the Qur’ān, are not included by any of the writers mentioned above.
5. الإلّ (pact, covenant; blood relationship, nearness with respect to kindred)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ill, as follows:
a. إلَـه (ilāh, Allah), as in لَا يَرْقُبُونَ فِي مُؤْمِنٍ إِلًّا وَلَا ذِمَّةً (التوبة : ١٠) "They respect neither Allah nor protective obligation with regard to a believer..." (Q. 9:10). Instead of "tie" and "pact" as translated respectively by Asad and Pickthall, the term ill here means Allah, according to Ibn Qutaybah, based on Mujāhid's interpretation. Ibn Qutaybah says that the word "ill" in "Jibrīl" - which can be read "Jibra Ill" - means "Allah".[89] Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, however, rejects the idea that ill or iyl is the name of Allah.[90] Lane mentions "lordship" (rubūbīyah) as one of the meanings of the term ill.[91] According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term ill in the above verse is qarābah (kinship, relationship) in the language of the Quraysh.[92]
Speaking of the term jabr as being among the ad.dād, al-Anbārī says that the term means a king (malik) as well as a servant (‘abd), and the word "Jabra’il" means "‘Abd Allāh" (the servant of Allah); jabr means "servant", and il or ill means al-rubūbiyyah (the lordship). He says that "Jibra Ill" is the reading of Ibn Ya‘mar. On the other hand, the term ill in the verse in question means Allah according to "some commentators". When the Muslims who were fighting Musaylimah read to Abū Bakr some verses of what Musaylimah claimed to be a revealed book, Abū Bakr said, "Verily, this is not a word which comes from God (Allah)" [93](إِنَّ هَذَا كَلامٌ لاَ يَخْرُجُ مِنْ إلّّ). In other versions Abū Bakr said: "It is indeed a statement which does not come from lordship (God)"[94] (إِنَّهُ لَكَلاَمٌ لَمْ يَخْرُجْ مِنْ إِلّ), and "This would not have come from Allah" (مَا خَرَجَ هَذَا مِنْ إِلّ). [95] According to Ibn Jinnī the word Allāh in the Nabatean language is ill. [96]
b. الرَّحِـم (kinship, relationship), as in the poem of H.assān ibn Thābit, as follows: كَإلِ السَّقْبِ فِيْ رَأْلِ النَّـعَام * لَعَمْرُكَ إنَّ إلَّكَ فِيْ قُرَيْشٍ "By thy life! Verily, thy kinship with the Quraysh tribe is like the kinship of the young camel with the young of the ostrich." This meaning of the term ill is a good one (wajh h.asan) for that term in the above verse.[97] Ibn al-Anbārī also mentions the other meanings of ill in the above verse, namely, kinship (qarābah), and treaty (h.ilf), whereas dhimmah in the above verse means covenant (‘ahd).[98]
c. اْلعَـهْد (covenant, treaty, pact), as in the above verse which is the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah.[99]
Both Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn al-Anbārī mention the three meanings of the term ill in the Qur’ān in their respective works; the former in his dealing with the term ill itself, while the latter when dealing with the term jabr as having two opposite meanings. However, the latter gives us more details of it. Al-Zamakhsharī also dealt with the term. However, al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Tiflīsī and al-Qurtubī did not include this term in their works.[100]
6. اْلقُنـُوْت (obedience)
The basic meaning of qunūt is "obedience", then the meaning developed into "standing in prayer". The most common meaning of qunūt in Arabic language is the du‘ā’ (supplication) to Allah while standing. However, the term is also applicable to any other act of obedience, even the nīyah (intention) of doing it.[101] This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah who confirms that the basic meaning of qunūt is "obedience to Allah"; other meanings, such as "prayer", "standing in prayer", and "supplication" are derived from it.[102] According to al-Tabarsī, the term also means "the continuance of doing a particluar thing" (الدَّوَامُ عَلَى أَمْرٍ وَاحِد).[103]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of qunūt, as follows:
a. اْلقِـَيام (standing). The prayer is called qunūt because it is performed while standing. When the Prophet was asked: "What is the most excellent characteristic of the act of prayer?", he answered: طُـوْلُ اْلقُنُوْت "the long continuance of the standing (in prayer)".[104] The example from the Qur’ān is أَمَّنْ هُوَ قَانِتٌ آَنَاءَ اللَّيْلِ سَاجِدًا وَقَائِمًا يَحْذَرُ الْآَخِرَةَ وَيَرْجُو رَحْمَةَ رَبِّهِ (الزمر : ٩) "Or [dost thou deem thyself equal to] one who stands [in prayer] throughout the night, prostrating himself or standing, ever-mindful of the life to come, and hoping for his Sustainer's grace?" (Q. 39:9)[105].
According to some commentators, this verse also indicates that the qunūt means not only standing in the prayer, but also the khushū‘ (submissiveness) in it.[106] Ibn Qutaybah also cites a h.adīth stating that the similarity of the mujāhid (the person who strives in the path of Allah) is like a person who performs prayer while fasting [107](مَثَلُ اْلمُجَاهِدِيْنَ فِيْ سَبِيْلِ اللهِ كَمَثَلِ اْلقَانِتِ الصَّائِم). The h.adīth was reported by Muslim and Ah.mad on the authority of Abū Hurayrah.
b. الدُّعَـاء (supplication), since it is cited while one is standing in prayer before or after bowing (ruku’). No example from the Qur’ān is given.
c. الإمْسَـاكُ فِي الصَّـلاَة (restraint from talking while standing in prayer), except from reciting the verses of the Qur’ān. Zayd ibn Arqam was reported to have said: "We used to talk while we were [standing] in prayer until it was revealed وَقُومُوا لِلَّهِ قَانِتِينَ (البقرة : ٢٣٨) ‘... and stand before Allah [in prayer] restraining from talking'." (Q. 2:238).[108] This is also the view of Mujāhid when he says that qānitīn in this verse means being at a standstill and refraining hands and sight from wandering.[109] However, it is also possible that qānitīn in this verse means "obeying"; this is also the view of al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī.[110]
d. اْلإقْرَارُ بِالْعُبُوْدِيَّة (the affirmation of one's serfdom), as in وَلَهُ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ كُلٌّ لَهُ قَانِتُونَ (الروم : ٢٦) "For, unto Him belongs every being that is in the heavens and on earth; all things affirm their serfdom to Him." (Q. 30:26).[111]
e. الطَّاعَـة (obedience), as in وَالْقَانِتِينَ وَالْقَانِتَاتِ (الأحزاب : ٣٥) "... And the obedient men and the obedient women..." (Q. 33:35, Lane).[112] Al-T.abarsī mentions two meanings of قَانِتِيْن andقَانِتَات in the said verse, i.e., "the men who keep on doing good deeds", and "the women who keep on doing good deeds," and "the men who supplicate" and "the women who supplicate." [113] These five meanings of qunūt are also mentioned by al-Suyūt.ī.[114]
7. الدِّيْـن (recompense)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dīn, as follows:
a. اْلجَـزَاء (recompense), as in مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ (الفاتحة : ٤) "Lord of the Day of Recompense [and of Punishment (al-qas.as.)]. (Q. 1:4)[115] The Arabs say كَمَا تَدِيْنُ تُدَان meaning "you will be rewarded (compensated) according to your deed" or "people will do to you as you do to them". [116]
b. اْلمُلْكُ وَ السُّلْطَان (supreme authority and power), as the Arabs say دِنْتُ اْلقَوْمَ أَدِيْنُهُمْ فَدَانُوْا "I conquered the people, I subdue them, so they submitted." Therefore, the verse وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ لِلَّهِ (البقرة: ١٩٣) and وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ كُلُّهُ لِلَّهِ (الأنفال : ٣٩), respectively means "and the supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 2:193), and "the whole supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 8:39). [117] Ibn Kathīr and al-Zamakhsharī, however, mention "the religion of Islam" as the meaning of dīn in the above verse, whereas al-T.abarsī gives "obedience". [118]
c. الطَّاعَة (obedience), as in (التوبة : ٢٩ ) وَلَا يَدِينُونَ دِينَ الْحَقِّ "... and [they] do not follow the religion of truth" (Q. 9:29) which means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Abū ‘Ubaydah, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī, "[they] do not obey [Allah] with true obedience" [119]( وَلاَيُطِيْعُوْنَ [الله]طَاعَةَ الْحَقّ)
d. اْلحِسَاب (reckoning), as in ذَلِكَ الدِّينُ الْقَيِّمُ (التوبة : ٣٦) "... that is the right reckoning." (Q. 9:36)[120] It means that the four sacred months - Muh.arram, Rajab, Dhū ’l-Qa‘dah and Dhū ’l-H.ijjah during which warfare was prohibited in pre-Islamic Arabia - in one year is the right reckoning. However, al-Zamakhsharī's interpretation of the term dīn is "religion", so the above verse means that the sacredness of the four months is the upright religion, the religion of Abraham and Ishmael.[121] With regard to the term dāna in the following h.adīth, الْكَيِّسُ مَنْ دَانَ نَفْسَهُ وَعَمِلَ لِمَا بَعْدَ اْلمَوْت (رواه لبترمذي و ابن ماجة و أحمد) Lane mentions three various interpretations, as follows: "The intelligent is he who (1) abases, and enslaves himself, (2) who reckons himself, or (3) who overcomes himself, and works for that which shall be after death." [122]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dīn, whereas al-Dāmaghānī as well as al-Suyūt.ī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention five, six and ten respectively. With the exception of Ibn Qutaybah, they mention the term dīn in the Qur’ān which means "religion" - (millah) according to al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī, dīn al-islām bi‘aynih (the religion of Islam itself) according to al-Tiflīsī - among which is as follows: وَيُقِيمُوا الصَّلَاةَ وَيُؤْتُوا الزَّكَاةَ وَذَلِكَ دِينُ الْقَيِّمَةِ (البينة : ٥) "... and to establish worship and to pay the poor-due. That is the true religion." (Q. 98:5).[123] Ibn Qutaybah does not deal with dīn which means religion here probably because it is easy to identify, such as in the verse إِنَّ الدِّينَ عِنْدَ اللَّهِ الْإِسْلَامُ (أل عمران : ١٩) "Lo! religion with Allah (is) Islam" (Q. 3: 19).
8. اْلمَـوْلَى (master, client, kinsfolk)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of mawlá as follows:
a. اْلمُعْـتِق (al-mu‘tiq, manumitter of slaves). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah.
b. اْلمُعْـَتق (al-mu‘taq, client, freed slave). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah, but Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give us the following example: فَإِنْ لَمْ تَعْلَمُوا آَبَاءَهُمْ فَإِخْوَانُكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَمَوَالِيكُمْ (الأحزاب : ٥) “....And if you know not who their fathers were, [call them] your brethren in faith and your clients." (Q. 33:5).[124]
c. عَصَبَةُ الرَّجُل (man's paternal relative, kinsman), as in وَإِنِّي خِفْتُ الْمَوَالِيَ مِنْ وَرَائِي (مريم : ٥) "Now, behold, I am afraid of [what] my kinsfolk [will do] after I am gone,..." (Q.19:5, Asad). [125] Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Anbārī interpret mawālī in this verse as "paternal cousins" (بَنُوْا اْلعَـمّ), whereas al-Tiflīsī inteprets it as "inheritors" [126] (وَرَثَة).
d. اْلمَـْولَى (guardian, patron, protector), whether a relative or not.The example of the relative mawlá is the Prophet's following statement: أَيُّمَا امْرَأَةٍ نَكَحَتْ بِغَيْرِ أَمْرِ مَوْلَاهَا فَنِكاَحُهَا بَاطِل “Any woman who marries without the consent of her guardian her marriage is void." [127] The example of the non-relative mawlá is as follows ذَلِكَ بِأَنَّ اللَّهَ مَوْلَى الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَأَنَّ الْكَافِرِينَ لَا مَوْلَى لَهُمْ (محمد : ١١) “This, because God is the Protector of all who have attained to faith, whereas they who deny the truth have no protector." (Q. 47:11, Asad). [128] According to al-Dāmaghānī and al-Dāmaghānī the term mawlá in this verse means rabb (Master, Lord).[129] The example of the mawlá who is either a relative or not, is as follows: يَوْمَ لَا يُغْنِي مَوْلًى عَنْ مَوْلًى شَيْئًا (الدخان : ٤١) "The Day when no guardian shall be of the least avail to his friend,..." (Q. 44:41), namely, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, the day when the help of a guardian, whether he is a relative or not, is of no avail.[130]
e. الْحَلِـْيف (ally), as in the poem of al-Nābighah al-Ja‘dī when he said: مَوَالِيَ حِلْفٍ لَا مَوَالِيَ قَرَابَةٍ "(They are) mawālī of alliance, not of kinship," namely, they are allies and not kinsfolk or, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, paternal cousins.[131]
f. أَوْلىَ بِالشَّيْء (have a higher claim, more entitled to), as in النَّبِيُّ أَوْلَى بِالْمُؤْمِنِينَ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ (الأحزاب : ٦) "The Prophet has a higher claim on the believers than [they have on] their own selves,..." (Q. 33:6, Asad). It means that the Prophet is more entitled to be obeyed by the believers than they are by their own selves.[132]
According to al-Farrā’, the above verse was revealed to disprove the practice of Muslims in making brotherhood among themselves, so that they can inherit from each other, like natural brothers, instead of giving the inheritance to their relatives and families. Therefore, it was revealed that the Prophet is closer to them than themselves, and yet, they cannot inherit from him, let alone inherit from their adopted brothers.[133] In another report it is said that when the Prophet ordered people to join him in the campaign of Tabūk, a group of people said that they would first ask their parents' permission; then the above verse was revealed.[134]
The term mawlá, as we have seen, belongs to the category of ad.dād. It means "the person who frees a slave" as well as "the freed slave". It has many other meanings in the Qur’ān. Ibn Qutaybah and Tiflīsī mention six meanings of mawlá, while Ibn al-Anbārī and al-Suyūt.ī mentions nine and eight meanings respectively. Al-Dāmaghānī, in dealing with the term walī gives us five meanings of each walī and mawlá, while Ibn al-Jawzī does not mention this term in his works Nuzhah and Qurrah . [135]
9. الضَّلاَل (straying)
The basic meaning of d.alāl is "straying" which is the opposite of "guidance".[136] Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of d.alāl, as follows:
a. اْلحِيْرَةُ وَالْعُدُوْلُ عَنِ الْحَقِّ وَالطَّرِيْق (confusion and abandoning the truth or losing or straying from the right way),[137] as in وَوَجَدَكَ ضَالًّا فَهَدَى (الضحى : ٧) "And found thee lost on thy way, and guided thee?" (Q. 93:7, Asad). [138]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions two different meanings of the term d.alāl in the above verse: "forgetting", which is the view of Tha‘lab, and "straying", upon which five interpretations are given: (a) the Prophet's straying from the characteristics of prophethoodمَعَالِمُ النُّبُوَّّة) ), which is the view of al-H.asan and al-D.ah.h.āk; (b) his straying at the mountain paths of Makkah when he was a small boy, and Allah brought him back to his grand-father ‘Abd al-Mut.t.alib, which is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās; (c) his straying when the the halter (nose rope) of his camel which was carrying Khadījah's goods to Syria was taken one day by Iblis and led astray, then Jibrīl came to rescue and led it back to the caravan, which is the view of Sa‘īd ibn al-Musayyab; (d) his being among straying people, and Allah guided him, which is the view of Ibn al-Sā’ib, al-Farrā’, and al-Kisā’ī; and (e) his being undistinguished and unknown, and Allah guided people to him, so that they knew him well, and this is the view of ‘Abd al-‘Azīz ibn Yah.yá and Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alī al-Tirmidhī.[139]
b. النِّسْـيَان (forgetfulness), as in فَإِنْ لَمْ يَكُونَا رَجُلَيْنِ فَرَجُلٌ وَامْرَأَتَانِ مِمَّنْ تَرْضَوْنَ مِنَ الشُّهَدَاءِ أَنْ تَضِلَّ إِحْدَاهُمَا فَتُذَكِّرَ إِحْدَاهُمَا الْأُخْرَى (البقرة : ٢٨٢) "And if two men are not available, then a man and two women from among such as are acceptable to you as witnesses, so that if one of them should forget, the other could remind her." (Q. 2:282). This interpretation is according to that of Ibn Qutaybah, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’.[140]
c. اْلهَلَكَةُ وَاْلبُطْلاَن (annihilation and voidness), as in وَقَالُوا أَئِذَا ضَلَلْنَا فِي الْأَرْضِ أَئِنَّا لَفِي خَلْقٍ جَدِيدٍ (السجدة : ١٠) "And they say: 'What! After we have been annihilated and become united with the earth, shall we indeed be [restored to life] in a new act of creation?'" (Q. 32:10). [141] Similar interpretations are also given by Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Farrā’, Ibn Kathīr, al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī. [142]
As we have seen Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings only of d.alāl. Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention respectively seven, eight and ten meanings, among which are jahl (ignorance) and khusrān (loss).[143]
10. الإمَـام (leader)
Four meanings of imām are cited by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. مَا ائْتَمَمَتَ بِه (the person whose example you follow), which is the basic meaning of imām, as in (البقرة : ١٢٤) قَالَ إِنِّي جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًا"He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.'" (Q. 2:124, Asad). [144]
b. اْلكِتَـاب (the book recording the deeds of mankind in this world), as in يَوْمَ نَدْعُوا كُلَّ أُنَاسٍ بِإِمَامِهِمْ (الإسراء : ٧١) "On the day We shall summon all men with their record [namely, the book containing the records of their deeds], ..." (Q. 17:71, Pickthall). [145] Al-T.abarsī mentions five interpretations of the term imām in the said verse: (1) of Ibn ‘Abbās according to one report, al-H.asan and Abū al-‘Āliyah, as mentioned above; (2) of Ibn Zayd and al-D.ah.h.āk, the revealed book, i.e., it will be called "O people of the Qur’ān, O people of the Torah..." (3) of Mujāhid and Qatādah, the prophet of people, i.e., it will be proclaimed "Bring forth the followers of Abraham, the followers of Moses, and of Muh.ammad;" they will come forward and will take their books in their right hands; then it will be summoned: "Bring forward the followers of Satan and misguiding leaders"; this is another interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās as reported by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr; (4) of al-Jubbā’ī and Abū ‘Ubaydah, the ‘ulamā’ and leaders followed by people; [146] and (5) of Muh.ammad ibn Ka‘b, who mistook imām for ummahāt ("mothers") as plural for umm ("a mother"). [147]
c. اللَّوْحُ اْلمَحْفُوْظ (The Preserved Tablet), as in وَكُلَّ شَيْءٍ أَحْصَيْنَاهُ فِيْ إِمَامٍ مُبِيْن (يس: ١٢) "... for all things do We take account in a clear Preserved Tablet." (Q. 36:12). [148]
d. الطَّـرِيْق (the way), as in وَإِنَّهُمَا لَبِإِمَامٍ مُبِيْن (الحجر:٧٩) "... and behold, both these [sinful communities] are on a clear way" (Q. 15:79) which is the interpretation of Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, al-H.asan, Qatādah, al-Farrā’, Ibn Qutaybah and al-Zamakhsharī.[149] However, the term imām in this verse also means kitāb (record) in the Quraysh language according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[150] Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation of the term imām in this verse is that it is anything we follow and through which we are guided. [150]
11. الصَّـلاَة (prayer)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings for s.alāh, as follows:
a. الدُّعـَاء (supplication, prayer) as in وَ صَلٍّ عَلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ صَـلَاَتكَ سَكَنٌ لَهُم (التوبة: ١٠٣) "..., and pray for them: behold, thy prayer will be [a source of] comfort to them...." (Q. 9:103, Asad). [152]
b. الرَّحْمَةُ وَ اْلمَغْفِرَة (blessing and forgiveness), as in إِنَّ اللهَ وَ مَلائِكَتَهُ يُصَلُّوْنَ عَليَ النَّبِيّ (الأحزاب: ٥٦) "Verily, Allah and His angels bless and forgive the Prophet [namely, the angels ask Allah blessings and forgiveness on him] ..." (Q. 33:56).[153] Instead of al-maghfirah, al-Suyūt.ī mentions al-istighfār. [154] . Both al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention the meaning of s.alāh as al-maghfirah wa ’l-istighfār, namely, forgiveness from Allah, and asking forgiveness from His angels and men. [155] Al-Zamakhsharī mentions al-rah.mah wa ’l-ra’fah (mercy) as the meaning of al-s.alāh in the above verse.[156] According to Tiflīsī, the expression يُصَلُّوْن means يُحَيُّوْنَه ("they greet him").[157] S.alāh from Allah is His mercy to the Prophet, whereas from the angels is du‘ā’ and istighfār for him. [158]
c. الدِّيْـن (religion), as in (٨٧:ﻫﻮﺩ) قَالُوْا يَا شُعَيْبُ أَصَلاتُكَ تَأْمُرُكَ أَنْ نَتْرُكَ مَا يَعْبُدُ آبَاؤُنَا "Said they: O Shu‘ayb! Does thy religion compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,...?" (Q. 11:87).[159] This is the interpretation of al-H.asan, ‘At.ā’ and Abū Muslim. However, s.alāh in the said verse can also mean the established prayer itself, and this is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās.[160] Prophet Shu‘ayb was said to perform prayers very often. While praying, his people winked at each other and laughed. They asked him sarcastically whether his prayers were the motive for asking them to abandon their idols which had been worshipped by their ancestors.[161]
Ibn Qutaybah does not give us the other meanings of s.alāh, such as the five daily prayers (Q. 2:3), the congregational Friday prayer (Q. 62:9), the reading in the prayer (Q. 17:110), and the funeral prayer (Q. 9:84), probably because they are easily identified in their respective verses.
12. اْلكِتـَاب (writing, the act of writing)
According to Ibn al-Jawzī, the basic meaning of kitāb is jam‘ (collecting), since the writer (al-kātib) collects letters when he writes.[162] Ibn Qutaybah mentions us five meanings of kitāb as follows:
a. مَا كَتَبَهُ اللهُ فِى اللَّوْح (what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet). This is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of the term kitāb, but no example is given.[163] The example of the term kitāb meaning al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz. mentioned by Tiflīsī is as follows:
النَّبِيُّ أَوْلَى بِالْمُؤْمِنِينَ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَأَزْوَاجُهُ أُمَّهَاتُهُمْ وَأُولُو الْأَرْحَامِ
بَعْضُهُمْ أَوْلَى بِبَعْضٍ فِي كِتَابِ اللَّهِ مِنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُهَاجِرِينَ إِلَّا أَنْ
تَفْعَلُوا إِلَى أَوْلِيَائِكُمْ مَعْرُوفًا كَانَ ذَلِكَ فِي الْكِتَابِ مَسْطُورًا
(الأحزاب :٦)
“The Prophet is clolser to the Believers than in their own“
selves, and his wives are their mothers. Blood relations among
each other have closer personal tie , in the Decree of God [i.e.,
al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.], than (the brotherhood of) Believers
and Muhajirs: nevertheless you do what is just to your
closest friends: such is the writing in the decree
(of God) [i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.].”
(A. 33:6, Ali)
Al-Dāmaghānī mentions other verses, namely,
مَا أَصَابَ مِنْ مُصِيبَةٍ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا فِي أَنْفُسِكُمْ إِلَّا فِي كِتَابٍ
مِنْ قَبْلِ أَنْ نَبْرَأَهَا إِنَّ ذَلِكَ عَلَى اللَّهِ يَسِيرٌ (الحديد:٢٢)
“No misfortune can happen on earth in your souls but is
recorded in a decree [i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.] before We
bring it into ixistence: that is truly easy for God.”
(Q. 57:22, Ali)
قَدْ عَلِمْنَا مَا تَنْقُصُ الْأَرْضُ مِنْهُمْ وَعِنْدَنَا كِتَابٌ حَفِيظٌ ( ق:٤)
“We already know how much of therm the erth takes away;
Wit Us a Recording guarding (the full account)
[i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.].”
(Q. 50:4) [164]
b. اْلقَضَـاء (divine decree), as in كَتَبَ اللهُ لَأَغْلِبَنَّ أَنَا وَرُسُلِي (المجادلة: ٢١) "Allah has divinely decreed: I verily shall prevail, I and My messengers!..." (Q. 58:21).[165] Beside qad.ā’ al-T.abarsī also mentions the other meaning of kitāb, namely "what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet".[166] Al-Zamakhsharī gives the last meaning only. [167]
c. اْلفَـرْض (divine prescript) as in يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِيْنَ آمَنُوْا كُتِبَ عَلَيْكُمُ اْلقِصَاصُ فِي اْلقَتْلَى (البقرة: ١٧٨) "O you who believe! Retribution is prescribed for you in cases of killing..."(Q. 2:178).[168] Al-T.abarsī also mentions the second interpretation, namely, "it has been prescribed in the Preserved Tablet as an injuction for you".[169]
d. جَـعَلَ (make), as in أُوْلَئِكَ كَتَبَ فِي قُلُوْبِهِمُ اْلإيْمَان (المجادلة: ٢٢) "[As for the true believers], it is they in whose hearts He has made faith ..." (Q. 58:22).[170]
Both al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī mention athbata and thabbata, both meaning "to affirm" for the meaning of kataba in the above verse.[171]
e. الأَمْـر (command), as in يَا قَوْمِ ادْخُلُوا اْلأَرْضَ اْلمُقَدَّسَةَ الَّتِي كَتَبَ اللهُ لَكُم (المائدة: ٢١) "O my people! Enter the holy land which Allah has ordained for you..." (Q. 5:21). This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn Kathīr.[172] Instead of "hath ordained for you" or "has promised you" as translated by Pickthall and Asad respectively, Ibn Qutaybah says that kataba’llāhu lakum means "Allah has ordered you to enter" [173] أَمَرَكُمْ أَنْ) (تَدْخُلُوْهَا which is the interpretation of Qatādah and al-Suddī.[174] Ibn Qutaybah also gives another meaning of kataba in this verse, namely, "make" so that the verse means "enter the land which has been made for the descendants of Abraham" [175] ادْخُلُوا اْلأَرْضَ اْلمُقَدَّسَةَ الَّتِي كَتَبَ اللهُ لِوَلَدِ إِبْرَاهِيْمَ عَلَيْهِ السَّلام (أَيْ جَعَلَهَا لَكُم). This interpretation is similar to that of Ibn ‘Abbās above. The third interpretation, however, says that the term kataba in this verse means "it has been ordained in the Preserved Tablet that it is for you” [176] (كُتِبَ فَي الَّلوْحِ اْلَمْحُفْوِظ أَنَّهَا لَكُمْ). However, according to al-Rāghib al-As.banānī, the holy land was given to them on the condition that they entered therein. [177]
Ibn Qutaybah and Tiflīsī mention five, while Yah.yá ibn Sallām gives four meanings of the term kitāb. Ibn al-Jawzī cites eleven meanings, whereas al-Dāmaghānī lists ten meanings of this term. This great number is the result of their including the term kitāb to mean "what is written", so that it includes the Qur’ān, as well as the Torah and the Bible.
13. السَّبَب (reason, motive, means) and اْلحَـبْل (rope)
Sabab, as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, has four meanings as follows:
a. الحَـْبل (rope) which is its basic meaning.[178]
b. The connection or motive by which one achieves or reaches something, as in فُلانٌ سَبَبِيْ إِلَيْك ("So-and-so is the motive for my coming to you") meaning "So-and-so has brought me to you” (فُلانٌ وَصْلَتِيْ إِلَيْك) , and the expression مَا بَيْنِيْ وَبَيْنَكَ سَبَب ("There is no relationship between you and me, neither blood relationship nor spiritual one"). In other words, "there is nothing that can bring us together" (namely, "we have nothing to do with each other"). Originally, sabab signifies "a dry rope let down (or made to descend) from above", "a rope of which one end is attached to a roof or a ceiling or the like", or "a strong and long rope by means of which one ascends (such as palm trees) or descends (such as the access to water)".[179] From this meaning, another meaning appears, as follows:
c. الطَّرِيْقَـة (way, means), because by following it one will reach one's goal, as in (الكهف: ٨٥) فَأَتْبَعَ سَبَبـًا "And so he chose the right means [in whatever he did]." (Q. 18:85, Asad). [180]
d. اْلبَـاب (the door, the gate), because through it one reaches a certain place, as in وَقَالَ فِرْعَوْنُ يَا هَامَانُ ابْنِ لِيْ صَرْحًا لَعَلِّيْ أَبْلُغُ اْلأَْسْبَابَ. أَسْبَابَ السَّمَاوَاتِ فَأَلطَّلِعَ إِلىَ إِلَهِ مُوْسَى وَ إِنِّيْ لَأَظُنُّهُ كَاذِبًا (المؤمن: ٣٦-٣٧) "And Pharaoh said: O Haman! Build me a lofty tower that I may reach the doors, the doors of the heavens, and that [thus] I may have a look at the God of Moses: for, behold, I am indeed certain that he is a liar." (Q. 40:36-37).[181]
However, Al-T.abarsī, cites three interpretations of the term asbāb in the said verse: "the roads from one heaven to another" according to al-Suddī, "the doors of the roads of heavens" according to Qatādah, an Al-T.abarsī, and "the stopping places in the heavens" (مَنَازِلُ السَّمَاوَات), according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[182] Lane gives usthe meanings of asbāb here as "the places of ascent", "the tracks", "the regions" and "the gates" of heavens. [183]
As a shāhid Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of Zuhayr as follows:
مَنْ هَابَ أَسْبَابَ اْلمَنَايَا يَنَلْنَهُ * وَ لَوْ نَالَ أَسْبَابَ السَّمَاءِ بِسُلَّمِ
“Whoever fears the door of fate of death he will get it, even
if he should get to the doors of heaven with a ladder.”[184]
It means that whoever fears death will meet it soon.
Ibn Qutaybah, having in his mind of the basic meaning of h.abl as "a means to reach an end", mentions two meanings of it, as follows:
a. عَهْدُ اللهِ وَكِتَابُه (Allah's covenant and His Book), as in وَ اعتَصِمُوْا بِحَبْلِ اللهِ جَمِيْعًا وَلَا تَفَرَّقُوْا (آل عمران: ١٠٣) "And hold fast, all of you together, unto Allah's covenant and His Book [namely, the Qur’ān which is the link for the Muslims to reach Him and Paradise], and do not draw apart from one another...." (Q. 3:103).[185]
However, al-Zamakhsharī mentions "the covenant" only, [186] whereas according to Ibn Mas‘ūd the term h.abl Allāh in the verse means "the Qur’ān"[187] which is also the view of Mujāhid and Qatādah;[188] it is said that it is also the view of al-Suddī, while according to Ibn ‘Abbās and Abū Zayd it means "the religion of Allah", namely, Islam.[189]
b. اْلأَمْـن )peace, security, safety, protection), as in ضُرِبَتْ عَلَيْهِمُ الذَّلَّةُ أَيْنَ مَا ثُقِفُوْا إلَّا بِحَبْلٍ مِنَ اللهِ وَ حَبْلٍ مِنَ النَّاس (آل عمران: ١١٢ ("Overshadowed by ignominy are they wherever they may be, save [when they bind themselves again] with protection from Allah and peace from men." (Q. 3:112).[190] As a shāhid from poetry, Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-A‘shá as follows:
وَإِذَا تُجَوِّزُهَا حِبَالُ قِبِيْلَةٍ * أَخَذَتْ مِنَ الْأُخْرَى إِلَيْكَ حِبَالَهَا
“And when the (assurance of) safety from a tribe permits them
[namely, the camels or the caravan] to pass [the territory belonging
to that tribe], they also took permission from other tribes [and
brought it] to you [to pass their territories safely].” [191]
In the past, the caravan's route may have crossed the territories of several tribes. It was necessary for them to obtain from each an assurance of safe conduct which often involved payment of money.[192]
14. الظُّـْلم (wrongdoing)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm as follows:
a. وَضْعُ الشَّيْءِ فِيْ غَيْرِمَوْضِعِهِ (Putting something not in its proper place), namely, wrong doing. This is the basic meaning of z.ulm. The Arabic expression أَرْضٌ مَظْلُـْوَمة (lit., "a wronged piece of land") means "a piece of land dug in the wrong place", and the expression اْلزِمِ الطَّرِيْقَ وَلَا تَظْلِمْه means "keep on the track, and do not deviate from it".[193] No example from the Qur’ān is given here by Ibn Qutaybah, either in his work Ta’wīl or in his work Tafsīr.[194]
b. الشِّـرْك (polytheism, idolatory), as in الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَلَم يَلْبِسُوا إِيمَانَهم بِظُلْمٍ أُولَئِكَ لهُمُ الْأَمْنُ وَهُمْ مُهْتَدُونَ (الأنعام: ٨٢) "Those who believe and who have not obscured their belief by polytheism, theirs is safety; and they are rightly guided." (Q. 6:82).[195] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Sa‘īd ibn al-Musayyab, Qatādah, Mujāhid and the majority of commentators. When the above verse was revealed the Prophet's companions felt uneasy and asked the Prophet: "Which of us has never obscured his belief by wrongdoing?" The Prophet said: "It is not what you think it means. Have you ever heard of what the pious servant (meaning Luqman) said: يَا بُنَيَّ لَا تُشْرِكْ بِاللَّهِ إِنَّ الشِّرْكَ لَظُلْمٌ عَظِيمٌ (لقمان:١٣) ) 'O my dear son! Do not ascribe partners unto Allah. For, behold, to ascribe partners (unto Him) is a tremendous wrong doing.'" (Q. 31:13). [196]
Al-Zamakhsharī, however, insists on interpreting z.ulm in this verse as ma‘s.iyah (disobedience), and rejects kufr (disbelief), because of the keyword labs (obscurity); in his view, kufr cannot make faith obscure, but ma‘s.iyah can.[197]
c. النُّقْصَـان (reduction, loss, detriment, imperfection, blemish). The expression ظَلَمْتُكَ حَقَّك means "I reduce your right." The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: كِلْتَا الْجَنَّتَيْنِ آَتَتْ أُكُلَهَا وَلَمْ تَظْلِمْ مِنْهُ شَيْئًا (الكهف: ٣٣) "Each of the two gardens yielded its produce, and made not aught thereof to suffer loss..." (Q. 18:33).[198]
d. اْلجَـحْد (denial, disbelief), as in وَمَنْ خَفَّتْ مَوَازِينُهُ فَأُولَئِكَ الَّذِينَ خَسِرُوا أَنْفُسَهُمْ بِمَا كَانُوا بِآَيَاتِنَا يَظْلِمُونَ (الأعراف: ٩) "whereas those whose weight is light in the balance - it is they who will have squandered their own selves by their wilful denial of Our messages." (Q. 7:9). [199]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī, and al-Dāmaghānī mention respectively five, six, seven, and nine meanings, among which is al-sariqah (stealing). This meaning was not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl. One of the examples in the Qur’ān is the following: قَالُوا جَزَاؤُهُ مَنْ وُجِدَ فِي رَحْلِهِ فَهُوَ جَزَاؤُهُ كَذَلِكَ نَجْزِي الظَّالِمِينَ (يوسف: ٧٥) “[The brother] replied: 'Its requital? He in whose camel-pack [the cup] is found - he shall be [enslaved as] a requital thereof! Thus do we [ourselves] requite the thieves.'" (Q. 12:75).[200]
It had been among the laws of Prophet Abraham to hand over the thief to the victim of the theft, and that was the rule that Prophet Joseph wanted to be applied. [201]
15. اْلبَـلاء (test, trial, affliction)
Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of balā’ is "a test", either for good or for bad things. It has two meanings: balā’ meaning a test and blessing. The root of the term meaning a test is balā yablū balwan (in Ibn Qutaybah's example,بَلَوْتُُهُ أَبْلُُْوهُ بَلْوًا , and the noun is balā’). For good things it is said ablá yublī iblā’an (أَبْلَوْتُهُ أُبْلِيْهِ إِبْـلاءً) and for bad things it is said balā yablū balā’an [202] (بَلاهُ اللهُ يَبْلُوْهُ بَلاءً)
According to al-Sharīf al-Murtad.á,however, أَبْلَوْتُهُ(instead of أَبْلَيْتُهُ), إبْلاءً, as well as بَلاءً are used for good things, whereas for bad things بَلَوْتُهُ, أَبْلُوْهُ and بِلىً (bilan) are commonly used. In other words, although بَلاءً is used for both good and bad things, it is more frequently used for good things, whereas for bad things بِلىً (bilan) is more frequently used among the Arabs. [203]
The examples given by Ibn Qutaybah from the verses of the Qur’ān are as follows:
a. اْلإخْتِـَبار (trial, test) as in إِنََّ هَذَا لَهُوَ الْبَلَاءُ الْمُبِينُ (الصافاّت: ١٠٦) “For, behold, all this way indeed a trial, clear in itself" (Q. 37:106), namely, the injunction to sacrifice his (Prophet Abraham's) son is a test for him.[204] The test can be for either good or bad things. Allah says: وَنَبْلُوكُمْ بِالشَّرِّ وَالْخَيْرِ فِتْنَةً (الأنبياء: ٣٥) “... and We try you with evil and with good for ordeal" (Q. 21:35, Pickthall), namely, We test you with evil to see your patience, and with good to see your gratitude. [205] They are, according to Ibn ‘Abbās, poverty and richness, sorrow and happiness, and comfort and hardship; or, according to Ibn Zayd, what you like, dislike and fail to do, so that you will become patient of what you dislike and thankful of what you like .
b. النِّعْمَـة (blessing), as in وَإِذْ نَجَّيْنَاكُمْ مِنْ آَلِ فِرْعَوْنَ يَسُومُونَكُمْ سُوءَ الْعَذَابِ يُذَبِّحُونَ أَبْنَاءَكُمْ وَيَسْتَحْيُونَ نِسَاءَكُمْ وَفِي ذَلِكُمْ بَلَاءٌ مِنْ رَبِّكُمْ عَظِيمٌ (البقرة: ٤٩) “And [remember the time] when We saved you from Pharaoh's people, who afflicted you with cruel suffering, slaughtering your sons and sparing [only] your women: That was a tremendous blessing from your Sustainer." (Q. 2:49). [206]
Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī interpret balā’ for both good and bad things: the good thing was that the children of Israel were delivered from Pharaoh's folk, and the bad thing was that the Pharaoh's folk afflicted them with dread torment as mentioned in the above verse.[207]
16. الرِّجْـز (punishment, a conduct that leads to punishment) and الرِّجْس (dirt, filth)
Al-rijz, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Tiflīsī, and Ibn al-Jawzī has three meanings in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلعَـذَاب (punishment), as in لَئِنْ كَشَفْتَ عَنَّا الرِّجْزَ لَنُؤْمِنَنَّ لَكَ ((الأعراف: ١٣٤) “.... If thou remove this punishment from us, we will truly believe in thee,..." (Q. 7:134). [208]
According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the wordرِجْز meaning عَذَاب (punishment) is the language of the Hudhayl (or T.ayy). [209]
b. كَيْدُ الشَّيْطَان (the trick of Satan), since it leads to punishment, as in وَيُذْهِبَ عَنْكُمْ رِجْزَ الشَّيْطَانِ (الأنفال: ١١) "... and free you from the trick of Satan..." (Q. 8:11).[210] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, رِجْزُ الشَّيْطَان in this verse means تَخْوِيْفُ الشَّيْطَان (the scare of Satan) in the language of the Quraysh. [211]
c. اْلأَوْثـَان (idols), since they also lead to Allah's punishment, as in وَالرُّجْزَ فَاهْجُرْ (المدثر: ٥) “And idols shun" (Q. 74:5).[212] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, Qatādah, and al-Zuhrī. Al-H.asan's interpretation is "avoid disobedience", whereas al-Kisā’ī makes a distinction between al-rijz meaning "punishment" and al-rujz meaning "idols".[213] However, Ibn Qutaybah states that since the term rujz also means "punishment", the verse means "avoid idolatory because it leads to punishment". This interpretation is similar to that of al-Zamakhsharī.[214]
Al-rijs means al-natn (decay).[215] This basic meaning developed into kufr (disbelief) and nifāq (hypocrisy), as in وَأَمَّا الَّذِينَ فِي قُلُوبِهِمْ مَرَضٌ فَزَادَتْهُمْ رِجْسًا إِلَى رِجْسِهِمْ وَمَاتُوا وَهُمْ كَافِرُونَ (التوبة: ١٢٥) "But as for those in whose hearts is disease, each new message but adds another [element of] disbelief to the disbelief which they already harbour, and they die while [still] refusing to acknowledge the truth." (Q. 9:125, Asad). [216]
17. اْلفِتْـنَة (test, trial, ordeal)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings of the term fitnah, as follows:
a. اْلإخْتِـبَار (test), as in the Arabic expression فَتَنْتُ الذَّهَبَ فِي النَّار (I tested the gold in fire). The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: وَلَقَدْ فَتَنَّا الَّذِينَ مِنْ قَبْلِهِمْ (العنكبوت: ٣) "Yea, indeed, We did test those who lived before them;..." (Q. 29:3, Asad). [217]
b. التَّعْذِيْب (persecution), as in وَمِنَ النَّاسِ مَنْ يَقُولُ آَمَنَّا بِاللَّهِ فَإِذَا أُوذِيَ فِي اللَّهِ جَعَلَ فِتْنَةَ النَّاسِ (العنكبوت: ١٠) “Now there is among men many a one who says [of himself and of others like him], 'We do believe in God' - but whenever he is made to suffer in Allah's cause, he thinks that persecution at the hands of man is as [much to be feared, or even more than] Allah's chastisement;.." (Q. 29:10, Asad). [218]
c. اْلإحْرَاق بِالنَّار (persecution by fire), as in إِنَّ الَّذِينَ فَتَنُوا الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُؤْمِنَاتِ ثُمَّ لَمْ يَتُوبُوا فَلَهُمْ عَذَابُ جَهَنَّمَ وَلَهُمْ عَذَابُ الْحَرِيقِ (البروج: ١٠) “Verily, as for those who persecute by fire believing men and believing women, and thereafter do not repent, hell's suffering awaits them: yea, suffering through fire awaits them!" (Q. 85:10).[219] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Qatādah and al-D.ah.h.āk.[220] According to Ibn Kathīr, this is also the interpretation of Mujāhid. [221]
d. الصَّدُّ وَاْلإسْتِظْلال (turning someone away from the truth and making someone make an error), as in وَاحْذَرْهُمْ أَنْ يَفْتِنُوكَ عَنْ بَعْضِ مَا أَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ إِلَيْكَ (المائدة: ٤٩) "... and beware of them, lest they tempt thee away from aught that God has bestowed from on high upon thee...." (Q. 5:49, Asad).[222]
Both Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī give the interpretation of أَنْ يَفْتِنُوْكَ عَنْ in the above verse as يُضِلُّوْكَ عَنْهُ وَ يَسْتَزِلُّوْكَ (to deviate you from it and make you commit error). [223]
e. اْلإشْرَاك (polytheism, idolatry), as in وَالْفِتْنَةُ أَشَدُّ مِنَ الْقَتْلِ (البقرة: ١٩١) "… for polytheism is worse than slaughter." (Q. 2:191).[224] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Qatādah, Mujāhid,[225] as well as Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, ‘Ikrimah, al-H.asan, al-D.ah.h.āk and al-Rabī‘ ibn Anas.[226] Abū ‘Ubaydah and Lane interpret fitnah here as kufr (disbelief).[227]
f. اْلكُفْرُوَالإثْم (disbelief and sin), as in فَلْيَحْذَرِ الَّذِينَ يُخَالِفُونَ عَنْ أَمْرِهِ أَنْ تُصِيبَهُمْ فِتْنَةٌ أَوْ يُصِيبَهُمْ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ (النور: ٦٣) ".... so let those who would go against His bidding beware, lest disbelief and sin or painful punishment befall them." (Q. 24:63).[228]
g. اْلإثْم (sin), as in أَلَا فِي الْفِتْنَةِ سَقَطُوا (التوبة: ٤٩) ".... Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen...." (Q. 9:49). This is also Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation. [229]
h. اْلعِبْرَة (warning, deterring example), as in رَبَّنَا لَا تَجْعَلْنَا فِتْنَةً لِلْقَوْمِ الظَّالِمِينَ (يونس: ٨٥) ".... O our Sustainer, make us not a deterring example for evildoing folk." (Q. 10:85).[230] The verse means "do not make the wrongdoing folk believe that they are right and we the believers are wrong when they see us in misery and misfortune, while they are in happiness and prosperity." [231]
This is the view of Mujāhid who says that the verse means "do not destroy us with our enemies' hands, and do not punish us with Your punishment, or our enemies would say 'if they were on the right way, then why did we [who are on the wrong way] subjugate them'".[232] A similar view is also given by al-Farrā’, al-Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī, and Ibn Manz.ūr.[233]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings only of fitnah, whereas Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī mention fifteen, Tiflīsī mention fourteen, and both Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī mention eleven meanings. Many other meanings, such as قَتْل (assassination) in Q. 4:101, جُنُوْن (madness, insanity) in Q. 68:6, and ضَلالَة (error) in Q. 5:41, are dealt with by all of them with the exception of Ibn Qutaybah. The term fitnah in the verse Q. 6:23 which meansمَعْذِرَة (excuse) according to Qatādah [234] are dealt with by all of them. However, Ibn Qutaybah puts the verse into the category of verses with the term fitnah meaning إخْتِبَار. Nevertheless, he says that the term here means جَوَاب (the answer) to the question asked as a test mentioned in the preceding verse. [235]
18. الفَـْرض (duty, decree, order)
a. وُجُوْبُ الشَّيْء (the injunction of doing something), as in قَدْ عَلِمْنَا مَا فَرَضْنَا عَلَيْهِمْ فِي أَزْوَاجِهِمْ (الأحزاب: ٥٥) "... [seeing that] We have already made known what We have enjoined upon them with regard to their wives..." (Q. 33:50).[236]
b. اْلبَـيَان (explanation), as in سُورَةٌ أَنْزَلْنَاهَا وَفَرَضْنَاهَا (النور: ١) “A sūrah [is this] which We have bestowed from on high, and which We have distinctly explained..." (Q. 24:1).[237] This is the interpretation of Mujāhid and Qatādah according to Ibn Kathīr. [238] However, according to Ibn Qutaybah, it is also possible that the term farad.a in this verse means "to enjoin" as translated by Pickthall.[239] There are two variant readings in this verse: farad.nāhā and farrad.nāhā. The former means "We have enjoined the execution of what has been prescribed", and the latter means "We have distinctly explained in detail and define what has been prescribed in general, and what is h.alāl (permitted) and what is h.arām (prohibited)".[240]
c. اْلإنْزَال (sending down, revelation), as in إِنَّ الَّذِي فَرَضَ عَلَيْكَ الْقُرْآَنَ لَرَادُّكَ إِلَى مَعَادٍ (القصص: ٨٥) "Verily, He Who has sent down to thee the Qur’ān will surely bring thee home again..." (Q. 28:85).[241]
d. اْلإحْـلال (permission), as in مَا كَانَ عَلَى النَّبِيِّ مِنْ حَرَجٍ فِيمَا فَرَضَ اللَّهُ لَهُ (الأحزاب: ٣٨) “There is no reproach for the Prophet in that which Allah permits for him..." (Q. 33:38). [242]
19. اْلخِـيَانَة (disloyalty, treachery, betrayal)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of khiyānah, as follows:
a. entrusting a person with something, but he does not fulfil the trust أَنْ يُؤْتَمَنَ) (الرَّجُلُ عَلىَ شَيْءٍ فَلا يُؤْدِي اْلأَمَاَنة. Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example from the Qur’ān, but from poetry, the poem of al-Namir ibn Tawlab as follows:
وَ إنَّ بَنٍيْ رَبِيْعةَ َبَعْدَ وَهْبٍ * كَرَاعِي اْلبَيْتِ يَحْفَظُهُ فَخَانَا
“Verily, after (the loyalty and disloyalty of) Wahb tribe,
Banī Rabī‘ah are like the house keeper; he was (entrusted)
to keep it, then he betrayed it.”
Here Ibn Qutaybah makes a distinction between khā’in (a traitor) and sāriq (a thief); the former is a person who takes something which is entrusted to him, whereas the latter takes what is not entrusted to him. [243] The example from the Qur’ān is given by Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī, as follows: وَلَا تَكُنْ لِلْخَائِنِينَ خَصِيمًا (النساء: ١٠٥) ".... Hence, do no contend with those who are treacherous." (Q. 4:105).[244]
b. نَقْضُ اْلعَهِد (violation of treaty), as in وَإِمَّا تَخَافَنَّ مِنْ قَوْمٍ خِيَانَةً فَانْبِذْ إِلَيْهِمْ عَلَى سَوَاءٍ (الأنفال: ٥٨) "And if thou fearest violation of treaty from people [with whom thou hast made a treaty], cast it back at them in an equitable manner..." (Q. 8:58).[245]
c. مَعْصِيَةُ اْلمُسْلِمِيْن (disobedience of Muslims), as in يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا لَا تَخُونُوا اللَّهَ وَالرَّسُولَ وَتَخُونُوا أَمَانَاتِكُمْ وَأَنْتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ (الأنفال: ٢٧) "O you who believe! Do not disobey Allah and His messenger, nor knowingly betray your trusts..." (Q. 8:27).[846] The disobedience meant in this verse is neglecting Allah's injunctions and the Prophet's practice (sunnah) and laws (sharā’i‘) according to Ibn ‘Abbās, or any religious matter according to al-H.asan.[248]
20. اْلإسْـلام (submission)
There are three meanings of islām mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الدُّخُوْلُ فِي السِّلْم, entering into peace, (al-s.ulh., according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in وَلَا تَقُولُوا لِمَنْ أَلْقَى إِلَيْكُمُ السَّلَامَ لَسْتَ مُؤْمِنًا (النساء: ٩٤) “,... and do not say unto anyone who offers you peace: 'Thou art not a believer,...'" (Q. 4:94). [248]
Al-Zamakhsharī mentions a variant reading salama beside salāma; both have three meanings: istislām (surrender), islām (becoming Muslim), and taslīm (greeting with Islamic greeting). He also mentions the variant reading mu’manan (believed, saved) beside mu’minan (a believer). In a military detachment to Fadak, its inhabitants fled except Mirdās ibn Nāhik who had confidence with his being a Muslim and came down from the mountain, joined the takbīr with the invaders, pronounced the shahādah before them and greeted them with al-salāmu ‘alaykum. Usāmah ibn Zayd, not believing Mirdās's testament, killed him and seized his sheep. The Prophet who heard the incident was very upset and asked Usāmah: "Did you kill him because you wanted to take his property?" and read the above verse to him. When Usāmah asked him to ask Allah's forgiveness for him, he kept asking "How with lā ilāha illā ’llāh?", meaning "how should I ask forgiveness for you after you have killed a person who has pronounced the shahādah (became a Muslim)?" Upon hearing this, Usāmah wished he had become Muslim just at that moment, so that the sin he had just committed would be forgiven. Finally the Prophet prayed forgiveness for him and told him to free a slave.[249] After the incident and hearing the above verse, Usāmah promised not to kill a Muslim, and apologized to ‘Alī in his caliphate for not taking part in fighting against the dissenters.[250] These reports indicate that salāma or salama includes its three meanings istislām, islām, and taslīm in the verse in question, although Ibn Qutaybah mentions one only as mentioned above.
b. مُتَابَعَةٌ وِانْقِيَادٌ بِاللِّسَانِ دُوْنَ اْلقَلْب, following and submitting with the tongue only, not with the heart (al-iqrār bi ’l-lisān, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in قَالَتِ الْأَعْرَابُ آَمَنَّا قُلْ لَمْ تُؤْمِنُوا وَلَكِنْ قُولُوا أَسْلَمْنَا وَلَمَّا يَدْخُلِ الْإِيمَانُ فِي قُلُوبِكُمْ (الحجرات: ١٤) "The Bedouin say: We have believed. Say (unto them O Muhammad): You have not [yet] believed, but rather say: We have [outwardly] surrendered, for the faith hath not yet entered your hearts..." (Q. 49:14).[251] A group of people among the Banī Asad tribe who wanted to get charity came to the Prophet and claimed to have become Muslims. But Allah wanted them to know that the Prophet already knew that īmān had not yet entered into their hearts. So, the above verse was revealed to him. This was reported by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr and Ibn Zayd.[252]
c. مُتَابَعَةٌ وِانْقِيَادٌ بِاللِّسَانِ وَ اْلقَلْب, following and submission with the tongue and with the heart; (al-ikhlās., sincerity, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as قَالَ أَسْلَمْتُ لِرَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ (البقرة: ١٣١) “....He [namely, Abraham] said: I have surrendered [outwardly and inwardly] to the Sustainer of the Worlds." (Q. 2:131).[253]
21. اْلإيْمَـان (belief, faith)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of īmān, as follows:
a. التَّصْدِيْق, belief, confirmation, attestation, as in the statement of Prophet Jacob's children to him about the death of their brother Joseph, as follows: وَمَا أَنْتَ بِمُؤْمِنٍ لَنَا وَلَوْ كُنَّا صَادِقِينَ (يوسف: ١٧) ".... But [we know that] thou wouldst not believe us even though we speak the truth." (Q. 12:17). This is also the interpretation given by Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn Kathīr, al-Zamakhsharī, and al-Tabarsī.[254] This interpretation, as we shall see, deals with its general context, and not faith in religion.
b. تَصْدِيْقٌ بِاللِّسَانِ دُوْنَ اْلقَلْب (believing with the tongue only, not with the heart), as in ذَلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ آَمَنُوا ثُمَّ كَفَرُوا (المنافقون: ٣) "That is because they believed [with their tongues] then disbelieved [with their hearts]..." (Q. 63:3).[255] This is called hypocrisy, and this is one interpretation. The apostates claimed to be believers when they were among believers, but among disbelievers they disbelieved. Another interpretation, however, says that the term āmanū means that they really believed, but later disbelieved and became apostates. [256]
c. التَّصْدِيْقُ بِاللِّسَانِ وَالْقَلْب (believing with the tongue and with the heart), as in إِنَّ الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ أُولَئِكَ هُمْ خَيْرُ الْبَرِيَّةِ (البينة: ٧) "(And) lo! those who believe (outwwardly and inwardly) and do good works are the best of all creatures." (Q. 98:7). [257]
d. تَصْدِيْقٌ بِبَعْضٍ وَ تَكْذِيْبٌ بِبَعْض, believing some and disbelieving others اْلإيْمَانُ فِىْ) (شِرْك, believing while ascribing partners to Allah, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in وَمَا يُؤْمِنُ أَكْثَرُهُمْ بِاللَّهِ إِلَّا وَهُمْ مُشْرِكُونَ (يوسف: ١٠٦) "And most of them do not even believe in Allah without [also] ascribing partners (unto Him),..." (Q. 12:106). Ibn Qutaybah gives his commentary on this verse. He says that if we ask the idolators among the Arabs, "Who created you?," they would say "Allah.” [258] This interpretation is that of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, ‘ A t.ā’, ‘Ikrimah, al-Sha‘bī, Qatādah, al-D.ah.h.āk, and ‘Abd al-Rah.mān ibn Zayd ibn Aslam. [259]
22. الضُّرّ (damage, harm, hurt, injury, misfortune, loss, or diasdvantage)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of d.urr or d.arr, as follows:
a. ضِدُّ النَّفْع (the opposite of benefit), namely, harm, as in قََالََ هَلْ يَسْمَعُونَكُمْ إِذْ تَدْعُونَ أَوْ يَنْفَعُونَكُمْ أَوْ يَضُرُّونَ (الشعراء: ٧٢-٧٣) "Said he: 'Do [you really think that] they hear you when you invoke them, or benefit you or do you harm?'" (Q. 26:72-73, Asad). [260]
b. الشِّدَّةُ وَاْلبَلاء (misfortune and affliction), as in وَإِنْ يَمْسَسْكَ اللَّهُ بِضُرٍّ فَلَا كَاشِفَ لَهُ إِلَّا هُوَ (الأنعام: ١٧) "And if Allah should touch thee with misfortune, there is none who can remove it but He;..." (Q. 6:17, Asad). [261]
c. قَحْطُ اْلمَطَر (want of rain, drought), as in وَإِذَا أَذَقْنَا النَّاسَ رَحْمَةً مِنْ بَعْدِ ضَرَّاءَ مَسَّتْهُمْ (يونس:٢١) "And if We cause mankind the taste of mercy [namely, rain] after some adversity [namely, drought] wich had afflicted them..." (Q. 10:21, Pickthall).[262]
d. الْهَوْل (terror, fright, alarm, shock), as in وَإِذَا مَسَّكُمُ الضُّرُّ فِي الْبَحْرِ ضَلَّ مَنْ تَدْعُونَ إِلَّا إِيَّاهُ (الإسراء: ٦٧) "And whenever terror befalls you at sea, all those [powers] that you are wont to invoke forsake you, [and nothing remains for you] save Him:..." (Q. 17:67).[263]
e. اْلمَرَض (illness, disease) as in وَأَيُّوبَ إِذْ نَادَى رَبَّهُ أَنِّي مَسَّنِيَ الضُّرُّ وَأَنْتَ أَرْحَمُ الرَّاحِمِينَ (الأنبياء: ٨٣) "And [remember] Job, when he cried unto his Sustainer, 'Affliction [namely, disease] has befallen me: but Thou art the most merciful of the merciful.'" (Q. 21:83, Asad). [264] Here the term d.urr is interpreted by Ibn Qutaybah as "disease".
f. النَّقْص (defect, blemish, decrease, loss damage; lack, shortage), as in إِنََّّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا وَصَدُّوا عَنْ سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ وَشَاقُّوا الرَّسُولَ مِنْ بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُمُ الْهُدَى لَنْ يَضُرُّوا اللَّهَ شَيْئًا (محمد: ٣٢) "Those who reject God, hinder (men) from the path of God, and resist the apostle, after guidance has been clearly shown to them, will not injure [namely, defect, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation] God in the least, ..." (Q. 47:32, Ali). [265]
We notice that Tiflisi does not give قَحْطُ اْلمَطَر (want of rain, drought) as one of the meanings of the term d.urr or d.arr, whereas Ibn Qutaybah does not mention اْلجَوْع (hunger, starvation) as the meaning of the term in the following verse: فَلَمَّا دَخَلُوا عَلَيْهِ قَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الْعَزِيزُ مَسَّنَا وَأَهْلَنَا الضُّرُّ (يوسف: ٨٨) “And when they presented themselves before him, they said: 'O thou great one! Hardship has visited us and our folk,...'" (Q. 12:88, Asad) which is starvation as mentioned by al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī. [266] Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī also include "starvation" as the meaning of d.urr in this verse.[267]
23. اْلحَـرَج (narrowness, confinement; hardship, difficulty; restriction; oppression, distress, anguish, prohibition)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.araj, as follows:
a. الضِّيْق (narrowness, annoyance, hardship). This is the basic meaning of h.araj according to Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Athīr,[268] as in هُوَ اجْتَبَاكُمْ وَمَا جَعَلَ عَلَيْكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ مِنْ حَرَجٍ (الحج: ٧٨) "... it is He who has elected you [to carry His message], and has laid no hardship on you in [anything that pertains to] religion,..." (Q.22:78, Asad).[269] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word الحَرَج meaning الضِّيْق is the language of Qays (ibn) ‘Aylān. [270]
b. الشَّـكّ (doubt), as in كِتَابٌ أُنْزِلَ إِلَيْكَ فَلَا يَكُنْ فِي صَدْرِكَ حَرَجٌ مِنْهُ (الأعراف: ٢) "A divine writ has been bestowed from on high upon thee - and let there be no doubt about this in thy heart - ..." (Q. 7:2, Asad). This is also the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, Qatādah, al-Suddī, and al-Farrā’.[271] Ibn Kathīr mentions Mujāhid, Qatādah and al-Suddī who interpret h.araj as shakk.[272] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word الحَرَج meaning الشَّكّ is in th language of the Quraysh.[273] Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, interprets h.araj in this verse as d.īq. [274]
c. الإثْـم (sin, offence, misdeed, crime), as in لَيْسَ عَلَى الْأَعْمَى حَرَجٌ (النور: ٦١) "No offence attaches to the blind..." (Q. 24:61).[275]
24. الـُّرْوح (breath of life, soul; spirit)
Ibn Qutaybah gives seven meanings of rūh. in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. رُوْحُ الْأَجْسَام (soul of the bodies) taken away by Allah at the moment of death.[276] No example from the Qur’ān is given by Ibn Qutaybah; others mention the following verses: وَيَسْأَلُونَكَ عَنِ الرُّوحِ (الإسراء: ٨٥) "And they will ask thee about [the nature of] soul..." (Q. 17:85).[277] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās. But Ibn Qutaybah mentions the above verse as one of the examples of the term rūh. meaning a huge angel which is ‘Ali's interpretation. Other interpretations include: Gabriel, according to al-H.asan and Qatādah, Prophet‘ Īsá (Jesus), and the Qur’ān. [278] Asad’s interpretation of rūh. in the above verse is "divine inspiration". He contends that "the preceding as well as the subsequent verses relate explicitly to the Qur’ān and hence, to the phenomenon of divine revelation". [279]
b. جِبْرِيْـل (Gabriel), as in وَإِنَّهُ لَتَنْزِيلُ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ نَزَلَ بِهِ الرُّوحُ الْأَمِينُ (الشعراء: ١٩٢-١٩٣) "And lo! it is a revelation of the Lord of the Worlds, which the True Spirit [namely, Gabriel] hath brought down upon thy heart, ..." (Q. 26:192-193, Pickthall).[280]
c. مَلَكٌ عَظِيْم (a huge angel), so huge that as he stands alone he makes one line by himself, while other angels make another, mentioned in the Qur’ān as follows: يَوْمَ يَقُومُ الرُّوحُ وَالْمَلَائِكَةُ صَفًّا لَا يَتَكَلَّمُونَ إِلَّا مَنْ أَذِنَ لَهُ الرَّحْمَنُ وَقَالَ صَوَابًا (النبأ: ٣٨) "On the day when the angels and the Spirit stand arrayed, they speak not, saving him who the Beneficent alloweth and who speaketh right." (Q. 78:38). The Spirit here means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the huge angel. [281]
Al-Qurt.ubī mentions eight interpretations of the term al-rūh. in the above verse, as follows: (1) a huge angel, who in the Hereafter will stand alone and make one line by himself, and another for the other angels; this is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and Ibn Mas‘ūd quoted by Ibn Qutaybah above (and of ‘At.ā, according to al-T.abarsī); (2) Gabriel, according to al-Sha‘bī, al-D.ah.h.āk, and Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr; (3) soldiers of Allah, neither human beings nor angels, but have human forms and eat food; this is the view of Abū S.ālih. and Mujāhid (as well as Qatādah according to al-T.abarsī); (4) the nobles among angels, according to Muqātil ibn H.ayyān; (5)حَفَظَة عَلىَ اْلمَلائِكَة (guards of angels); (6) human beings, according to al-H.asan and Qatādah; they interpret al-rūh. as dhawū al-rūh. (those who have spirits); according to al-T.abarsī, this is the view of al-H.asan only; al-T.abarī states that Qatādah said:هَذَا مِمَّا كَانَ يَكْتُمُهُ ابْنُ عَبَّاس ("This is among what has been concealed by Ibn ‘Abbās"), and this is the interpretation chosen by M. Asad; (7) the spirits (souls) of the children of Adam before they return to their bodies, according to ‘At.iyyah (or Ibn ‘Abbās, according to al-T.abarī), and (8) the Qur’ān according to Zayd ibn Aslam. [282] Al-Suyūt.ī mentions جَيْشٌ مِنَ اْلمَلائِكَة (an army of angels) as the interpretation of rūh. in the above verse. [283]
d. النَّفْخ (blowing, breathing), as in the following poem of Dhū ’l-Rummah:
وَقُلْتُ لَهُ ارْفَعْهَا إِلَيْكَ وَ اَحْيِهَا * بِرُوْحِكَ …
“And I said to him: 'Lift it [the fire] up to you to
keep it alive with your gentle blowing...'” [284]
The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: وَالَّتِي أَحْصَنَتْ فَرْجَهَا فَنَفَخْنَا فِيهَا مِنْ رُوحِنَا وَجَعَلْنَاهَا وَابْنَهَا آَيَةً لِلْعَالَمِينَ (الأنبياء: ٩١) “And remember her who guarded her chastity, whereupon We breathed into her of Our blowing and caused her, together with her son, to become a symbol [of Our grace] unto all people." (Q. 21:91). Ibn Qutaybah states that the Messiah is called "the Spirit of Allah" because he was created through Gabriel by Allah's breath. The Messiah is also so called because he existed by His word "be" and he existed.[285] Another interpretation is that rūh. here means the spirit of ‘Īsá. [286]
e. كَلامُ الله (the word of Allah), namely, revelation, is also called rūh., because it gives life to the ignorant and infidels who are like dead people, as in يُلْقِي الرُّوحَ مِنْ أَمْرِهِ عَلَى مَنْ يَشَاءُ مِنْ عِبَادِهِ (المؤمن: ١٥) "... By His Own will does He bestow His word upon whomever He wills of His servants,..." (Q. 40:15).[287] The meaning of the term rūh. here according to al-Zamakhsharī, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī is wahy (revelation). [288] According to al-Farrā’, the rūh. here means النُّبُوَّة (prophethood), whereas al-Tabarsī mentions three meanings: the Qur’ān and all the revealed books sent to messengers, the revelation, and Jibrīl (Gabriel). [289]
f. الرَّحْمَـة (blessing), as in أُولَئِكَ كَتَبَ فِي قُلُوبِهِمُ الْإِيمَانَ وَأَيَّدَهُمْ بِرُوحٍ مِنْهُ (المجادلة: ٢٢) ... [As for the true believers,] it is they in whose hearts He has inscribed faith, and whom He has strengthened with blessing from Him, ..." (Q. 58:22).[290] Al-Tabarsī mentions four meanings of rūh. in this verse: the light of faith, the light of reasoning, the Qur’ān, and Gabriel.[291]
g. حَيَاةٌ وَبَقَاء (life and eternity where there will be no death), as in فَرَوْحٌ وَرَيْحَانٌ وَجَنَّةُ نَعِيمٍ (الواقعة: ٨٩) "Perpetual life [awaits him in the life to come], and inner fulfilment, and a garden of bliss." (Q. 56:89). This is the interpretation of Abu ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’ quoted by Ibn Qutaybah. [292]
This is one of the three interpretations given by al-Zamakhsharī, the other two being istirāh.ah (rest) and rah.mah (blessing).[293] Al-T.abarsī mentions two different interpretations, the rest from the burden of life which is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās and Mujāhid, and the air (al-hawā’). [294]
There are two more interpretations of rūh. which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah: firstly, اْلأَمْر (the command), as in إِنَّمَا الْمَسِيحُ عِيسَى ابْنُ مَرْيَمَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ وَكَلِمَتُهُ أَلْقَاهَا إِلَى مَرْيَمَ وَرُوحٌ مِنْهُ (النساء: ١٧١) "The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto Mary, and a command from Him...." (Q. 4:171);[295] Other interpretations are given by al-T.abarsī, among which are: Gabriel, a mercy from Allah, and a spirit created, fashioned, then sent by Allah to Mary which is the interpretation of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b reported by Abū al-‘Āliyah;[296]
secondly, the Qur’ān, as in وَكَذَلِكَ أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ رُوحًا مِنْ أَمْرِنَا (الشورى: ٥٢) “And thus have We revealed to thee (Muh.ammad) the Qur’ān by Our command ..." (Q. 42:52). [297]
With regard to the second verse, rūh.an min amrinā is the Qur’ān itself according to al-D.ah.h.āk whose view is adopted by al-Suyūt.ī, whereas Ibn Qutaybah gives كَلامُ الله (the word of Allah) as its interpretation. [298] However, there are many other interpretations, namely, نُبُوَّة (prophethood) according to Ibn ‘Abbās, رَحْمَة(blessing) according to al-H.asan and Qatādah,وَحْي (revelation) according to al-Suddī, كِتًَاب (scripture) according to al-Kalbī, and Jibrīl according to al-Rabī‘. [299]
25. اْلوَحْـي (inspiration, revelation)
Ibn Qutaybah interprets the basic meaning of wah.y, as follows: "everything suggested by means of speaking, writing, sign, or message [300] كُلُُّ) (شَيْءٍ دَلَلَتَ بِهِ مِنْ كِتَابٍ أَوْ إِشَارَةٍ أَوْ رِسَالَةٍ." Ibn Manz.ūr includes inspiration (اْلإلْهَام), secret talk (الكَلامُ الخَفِيّّ) among the meanings of wah.y.[301] However, according to al-Qurt.ubī, the term wah.y among the Arabs means "writing", "inscription" as in the following poem of Dhū al-Rummah:
سِوَى الأَرْبُعِ الدُّهْمِ اللَّوَاتِيْ كَأََنََّهَا * بَقِيَّةُ وَحْيٍ في بُطُوْنِ الصَّحَائِفِ
“Except the four black women who were similar to
the remnant of inscription in the midst of leaves,”
and in the following poem of ‘Antarah:
كَوَحْي صَحَائِف مِنْ عَهْدِ كِسْرَى - فَأَهْدَاهَا لِأَعْجَمِ طُُُُُمْطُُُُُمِي
“[It is] similar to an inscription on leaves in the time of Kisra (Khosrau),
so that he gave them as a gift to a non-eloquent a‘jamī (non-Arab).” [302]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of this term in the Qur’ān, as folows:
a. اْلإرْسَال (sending a message), namely, revelation through Gabriel, as in إِنَّا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ كَمَا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَى نُوحٍ وَالنَّبِيِّينَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِ (النساء: ١٦٣) "Behold, We have sent thee a message as We sent to Noah and the prophets after him,..." (Q. 4:163). [303]
b. اْلإشَـارَة (sign, gesture, signal), as in فَخَرَجَ عَلَى قَوْمِهِ مِنَ الْمِحْرَابِ فَأَوْحَى إِلَيْهِمْ أَنْ سَبِّحُوا بُكْرَةً وَعَشِيًّا (مريم: ١١) “Thereupon he came out of the sanctuary unto his people and signified to them [by gestures]: 'Extol His limitless glory by day and by night!'" (Q. 19:11, Asad).[304]
This is the view of Qatādah, al-Kalbī and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujāhid and ‘Ikrimah, that the term awh.á in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll." [305] This latter view is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah. His argument is that in another verse mentioning the same story, the term ramz (sign, gesture) is given, as follows: قَالَ رَبِّ اجْعَلْ لِي آَيَةً قَالَ آَيَتُكَ أَلَّا تُكَلِّمَ النَّاسَ ثَلَاثَةَ أَيَّامٍ إِلَّا رَمْزًا (آل عمران: ٤١) “[Zachariah] prayed: 'O my Sustainer! Appoint a sign for me!' Said [the angel]: 'Thy sign shall be that for three days thou wilt not speak unto men other than by gestures...'" (Q. 3:41, Asad). The sign here means, Ibn Qutaybah contends, moving the two lips, eyebrows or eyes, and not writing. [306]
c. اْلإلْهَام (inspiration) as in وَإِذْ أَوْحَيْتُ إِلَى الْحَوَارِيِّينَ أَنْ آَمِنُوا بِي وَبِرَسُولِي قَالُوا آَمَنَّا وَاشْهَدْ بِأَنَّنَا مُسْلِمُونَ (المائدة: ١١١) "And [remember the time] when I inspired the white-garbed ones: 'Believe in Me and in My Apostle! 'They answered: 'We believe; and bear Thou witness that we have surrendered [unto Thee].'" (Q. 5:111, Asad). [307]
According to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, wah.y in this verse means revelation to the white garbed ones through Prophet ‘Īsá (Jesus).[308] Both Abū Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī intepret wah.y in this verse as amr (command). [309]
d. الْإِعْلامُ فِي اْلمَنَام (information given during sleep), namely, true vision, as in وَمَا كَانَ لِبَشَرٍ أَنْ يُكَلِّمَهُ اللَّهُ إِلَّا وَحْيًا (الشورى: ٥١) “And it was not (vouchsafed) to any mortal that Allah should speak to him unless (it be) by true vision..." (Q. 42:51).[310]
e. الإعْلامُ بِاْلوَسْوَسَةِ مِنَ الشَّيْطَان (information through the whispering of the devil), as in وَإِنَّ الشَّيَاطِينَ لَيُوحُونَ إِلَى أَوْلِيَائِهِمْ لِيُجَادِلُوكُمْ (الأنعام: ١٢١) "And, verily, the devils tempt their minions with wicked suggestions to dispute with you..." (Q. 6:121).[311] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās.[312]
f. الأَمْـر (order, command), as in بِأَنَّ رَبَّكَ أَوْحَى لَهَا (الزلزلة: ٥) "as they Sustainer will have ordered her to do." (Q. 99:5). This is the interpretation given by Mujāhid adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. [313] Here Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-‘Ajjāj in which the term wah.y, means "order", as follows: وَحَى لَهَا اْلقَرَارَ فَاسْتَقَرَّتِ “He ordered it (the earth) to settle, and so it settled." [314] However, according to Ibn ‘Abbās's interpretation, awh.á lahā here means "Allah gave permission to the earth to tell what had been done on it", and this intepretation is adopted by al-Farrā’.[315]
26. اْلفَـَرح (joy, gladness, happiness)
There are three meanings of the term farah. in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. اْلمَسَرَّة (joy, happiness, delight, pleasure), as in إِذَا كُنْتُمْ فِي الْفُلْكِ وَجَرَيْنَ بِهِمْ بِرِيحٍ طَيِّبَةٍ وَفَرِحُوا بِهَا (يونس: ٢٢) "... when ye are in the ships and they sail with them a fair breeze they are glad therein..." (Q. 10:22, Pickthall).[316]
b. الرِّضَـا (contentment, satisfaction), as in كُلُّ حِزْبٍ بِمَا لَدَيْهِمْ فَرِحُونَ (المؤمنون: ٥٣؛ الروم: ٣٢) "Every sect is content with that [religion] which it has." (Q. 23:53 and 30:32, Lane). [317]
c. اْلبَطَرُ وَ اْلأشَر (exultation, wantonness, pride, arrogance, vanity, cockiness and liveliness, high spirits, exuberance, wildness, insolence, impertinence, excessive joy), as in إِذْ قَالَ لَهُ قَوْمُهُ لَا تَفْرَحْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ الْفَرِحِينَ (القصص: ٧٦) "When [they perceived his arrogance,] his people said unto him: 'Exult not [in thy wealth], for, verily, God does not love those who exult [in things vain]!'" (Q. 28:76, Asad).[318] This is, according to Ibn Kathīr, the interpretation of Mujāhid.[319] Here Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention the three meanings of the term فَرَح in conformity with those mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah.
27. اْلفَتْح (opening, conquest, victory)
Three meanings of fath. are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. أَنْ يُفْتَحَ اْلمُغْلَق (opening something closed), as in حَتَّى إِذَا جَاءُوهَا وَفُتِحَتْ أَبْوَابُهَا (الزمر: ٧٣) "... till, when they reach it, they shall find its gates wide-open;..." (Q. 39:73, Asad).[320]
Al-Zamakhsharī mentions two interpretations regarding the position of wa in the above verse: (1) It means "when they came to Heaven they came to it with its doors (or gates) open” (مَعَ فَتْحِ أَبْوَابِهَا); (2) It means “when they came to it its door had been opened”. “Unlike the doors of Hell which will be opened only when those who are to enter it arrive, the doors of Heaven will have been opened before the arrival of its companions, as mentioned in the Qur’ān جَنَّاتِ عَدْنٍ مُفَتَّحَةً لَهُمُ الْأَبْوَابُ (ص: ٥١) "Gardens of Eden, whereof the gates are opened for them." (Q. 38:50, Pickthall).[321]
b. النَّصْرَة (victory), as in فَإِنْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فَتْحٌ مِنَ اللَّهِ (النساء: ١٤١) "...thus, if victory comes to you from Allah..." (Q. 4:141). [322]
c. اْلقَضَاء (judgement) which is an opening to what is ambiguous, as in قُلْ يَجْمَعُ بَيْنَنَا رَبُّنَا ثُمَّ يَفْتَحُ بَيْنَنَا بِالْحَقِّ (سبأ: ٢٦) "Say: Our Sustainer will bring us all together, then He will judge between us with truth." (Q. 34:26).[323]
According to Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn Kathīr and al-T.abarsī, yaftah. in the above verse means yah.kum (decide), which is similar to yaqd.ī (judge).[324] Another meaning which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is al-irsāl (the sending down), as in مَا يَفْتَحِ اللَّهُ لِلنَّاسِ مِنْ رَحْمَةٍ فَلَا مُمْسِكَ لَهَا (فاطر: ٢) "Whatever grace Allah sends down to man, none can withhold it;..." (Q. 35:2).[325]
28. اْلكَرِيْم (noble; eminent; generous; beneficent; kind; honourable)
There are four meanings of karīm in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشَّرِيْفُ اْلفَاِضل (distinguished, honoured, eminent) as in وَنُدْخِلْكُمْ مُدْخَلًا كَرِيمًا (النساء: ٣١) "... and shall cause you to enter an abode of glory." (Q. 4:31, Asad),[326] "a good place", according to al-T.abarsī's interpretation. [327]
b. الصَّفُوْح (forgiving), as in فَإِنَّ رَبِّي غَنِيٌّ كَرِيمٌ (النمل: ٤٠) "..., verily, my Sustainer is self-sufficient, forgiving." (Q. 27:40).[328]
Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of karīm in the above verse is "He is kind to His servants, grateful, ungrateful, disobedient as well as obedient among them." [329]
c. كَثِيْرُالْكَرَم (bountiful), as in وَرِزْقٌ كَرِيمٌ (الأنفال: ٤, ٧٤ ؛ الحج: ٥٠؛ النور: ٢٦؛ سبأ: ٤) "... and a bountiful provision." (Q. 8:4 and 74; 22:50; 24:26; 34:4, Pickthall).[330]
d. اْلحَسَن (nice, fine, good) as in وَقُلْ لَهُمَا قَوْلًا كَرِيمًا (الإسراء: ٢٣) "... but speak to them a gracious word." (Q. 17:23, Pickthall).[331]
Another meaning of karīm mentioned by Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī is respectively مُتَكَرِّم (a person who makes himself noble) andالكَْرِيْمُ فِيْ زَعْمِه (a person who thinks he is noble) as in Q. 44:49.[332]
29. اْلمَثَـل (likeness, similarity, example; lesson; similar case)
Three meanings of mathal in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشَّـَبه (similarity, likeness) as in مَثَلُ الَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ أَوْلِيَاءَ كَمَثَلِ الْعَنْكَبُوتِ اتَّخَذَتْ بَيْتًا وَإِنَّ أَوْهَنَ الْبُيُوتِ لَبَيْتُ الْعَنْكَبُوتِ لَوْ كَانُوا يَعْلَمُونَ (العنكبوت: ٤١) "The likeness of those who choose other patrons than Allah is as the likeness of the spider when she takes unto herself a house, and lo! the frailest of all houses is the spider's house, if they but knew." (Q. 29:41, Pickthall). [333]
b. اْلعِبْرَة (example, lesson, advice) as in فَجَعَلْنَاهُمْ سَلَفًا وَمَثَلًا لِلْآَخِرِينَ (الزخرف: ٥٦) ("and so We made them a thing of the past, and an example to those who would come after them." (Q. 43:56, Asad). [334]
c. الصُّوْرَةُ وَالصِّفَة (image and description) as in مَثَلُ الْجَنَّةِ الَّتِي وُعِدَ الْمُتَّقُونَ فِيهَا أَنْهَارٌ مِنْ مَاءٍ غَيْرِ آَسِنٍ (محمد : ١٥) "The image and the description of the Garden which those who keep their duty (to Allah) are promised: Therein are rivers of water unpolluted, ..." (Q. 47:15). [335]
Ibn Kathīr mentions نَعْـت which is the synonym of صِفَة (description) as the meaning of mathal in the above verse.[336] Al-Farrā’ states that the variant reading of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Alī is أَمْثَالُ اْلجَنَّة , meaning [337] صِفَةُ اْلجَنَّة
30. الضَّـرْب (beating, striking, hitting)[338]
Three meanings of d.arb in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الضَّرْبُ بِاْليَد (beating with hands) as in فَإِذَا لَقِيتُمُ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فَضَرْبَ الرِّقَابِ (محمد: ٤) "Now when you meet [in battle] those who disbelieve, smite their necks ..." (Q. 47:4). [339]
b. اْلمَسِيْرَة (travel), as in وَآَخَرُونَ يَضْرِبُونَ فِي الْأَرْضِ (المزمل: ٢٠) "... while others travel in the land..." (Q. 73:20, Pickthall).[340]
c. التَّبْيِيْنُ وَاْلوَصْف (explanation and description), as in ضَرَبَ اللَّهُ مَثَلًا (النحل: ٧٥) "Allah describes a parable..." (Q. 16:75 and 112). [341]
According to Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī the term d.arb in the above verse means was.f only, whereas al-T.abarsī mentions tabyīn only.[342] The fourth meaning of this term, according to al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī, is bayān, as in Q. 14:45 and Q. 25:39. [343]
31. الزَّوْج (one of a pair, a pair, a couple; mate, partner; husband, wife) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of zawj in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. إثْنَانِ وَوَاحِد (a pair or one of the pair), as in وَأَنَّهُ خَلَقَ الزَّوْجَيْنِ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى (النجم: ٤٥) "and that it is He who creates the two pairs [namely, spouses] - the male and the female". (Q. 53:45). Here zawj means one of the pair.[344]
b. الصِّنْف (kind, species, class), as in سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا مِمَّا تُنْبِتُ الْأَرْضُ (يس: ٣٦) "Limitless in His glory is He who has created all species in whatever the earth produces..." (Q. 36:36).[345]
c. اْلقِرِيْن (companion, mate, fellow), as in احْشُرُوا الَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوا وَأَزْوَاجَهُمْ وَمَا كَانُوا يَعْبُدُونَ (الصافات: ٢٢) "[And God will thus command:] 'Assemble all those who were bent on evildoing, together with others of their ilk and [with] that they were wont to worship.'" (Q. 37:22, Asad). The meaning of azwāj here is "companions". Ibn Qutaybah does not explain what kind of companions they are, but al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī say that they are قُرَنَاءَهُمْ مِنَ الشَّيَاطِيْن (their companions among the devils, namely, evil people).[346] According to Mujāhid, ‘Umar and al-Suddī, the term azwāj means "people like them who had committed similar sins", whereas according to Qatādah and Abū al-‘Āliyah, it means "the followers of people who had committed similar sins". However, these two slightly different interpretations are also given by Ibn ‘Abbās, and both mean the same thing, namely "people committing the same sin will be assembled together", so that the adulterers will be assembled together, and alcohol drinkers will also be assembled together, and so on. [347]
Al-H.asan interprets the term أَزْوَاجُهُمْin the above verse as "the wives of idolaters who are also unbelievers and idolaters"; they will be assembled together with their husbands.[348]
According to Qut.rub, Ibn Qutaybah, al-T.abarī and al-Qurt.ubī, the term zawj is applicable to one pair as well as one of a pair. There is no disagreement in accepting that it is applicable to one of a pair. It is explicitly said in the Qur’ān ثَمَانِيَةَ أَزْوَاجٍ مِنَ الضَّأْنِ اثْنَيْنِ وَمِنَ الْمَعْزِ اثْنَيْنِ ... وَمِنَ الْإِبِلِ اثْنَيْنِ وَمِنَ الْبَقَرِ اثْنَيْنِ (الأنعام: ١٤٣-١٤٤) "Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain.... And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain..." (Q. 6:143-144, Pickthall). The expression "eight pairs" means "eight individuals of (four) pairs": sheep, goats, camels and oxen. In Arabic expression it is said لِفُلانٍ زَوْجَانِ مِنْ حَمَامٍ أَيْ ذَكَرٌوَأُنْثَى meaning "So-and-so has two mates of pigeons, namely, a male and a female); عِنْدِيْ زَوْجَانِ مِنَ اْلخِفَاف means "I have two individuals of a pair of slippers". This is also the argument of Ibn al-Anbārī who rejects the opinion that the term zawj is also applicable to a pair instead of exclusively one of a pair. However, according to al-T.abarī and al-Qurt.ubī it is possible to say either هُمَا زَوْجَان ("both are two spouses") or هُمَا زَوْج ("both are a pair"). It is, al-Qurt.ubī contends, like saying هُمَا سَيَّان("both are the same", in dual form) and هُمَا سَوَاء ("both are the same", in singular form).[349]
According to al-Zamakhsharī, one of a pair is called zawj on the condiutuion that it is accompanied with the other ionber of the pair. It is like calling zujājah (a glass) ka’s (a cup, as drinking glass) if it contains alcohol.[350] Like Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Sijistānī and Ibn al-Fāris also say thgat zawj means ”one of a pair” and not two. [351] In modern Arabic, zawj means one of a pair as well as a pair, a spouse (a husband or a wife) as well as a couple, a mate, a partner, while zawjah means a wife.
32. الـرُّؤْيـَة (seeing, viewing)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ru’yah in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلمُعَايَنَة (seeing with eyes), as in وَيَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ تَرَى الَّذِينَ كَذَبُوا عَلَى اللَّهِ وُجُوهُهُمْ مُسْوَدَّةٌ (الزمر: ٦٠) "And [so], on the Day of Resurrection thou wilt see all who invented lies about God [with] their faces darkened [by grief and ignominy]...." (Q. 39:60, Asad).[352]
b. اْلعِـْلم (knowledge), as in أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا (الأنبياء: ٣٠) “Are, then, they who are bent on denying the truth not aware that the heavens and the earth were [once] one single entity, which We then parted asunder? ..." (Q. 21:30).[353]
c. اْلإخْبَار (notification, information), as in أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ أُوتُوا نَصِيبًا مِنَ الْكِتَابِ (آل عمران: ٢٣؛ النساء: ٤٤ و٥١) "Hast thou not been informed of those who have received the Scripture...?" (Q. 3:23 and 4:44 and 51).[354]
According to Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī, the meaning ofأَلَمْ تَرَ is أَلَمْ تَنْظُرْ إِلىَ فِعْلِهِمْ (have not you seen what they have done), while according to al-Zamakhsharī and al-Zamakhsharī the expression means أَلَمْ يَنْتَهِ عِلْمُكَ إِلىَ (has not it come to your knowledge about). [355]
Ibn al-Jawzī, who cites six meanings of ru’yah, mentions the three other meanings, as follows: (1) اْلإعْتِبَار (consideration), as in أَلَمْ يَرَوْا إِلَى الطَّيْرِ مُسَخَّرَاتٍ فِي جَوِّ السَّمَاءِ (النحل: ٧٩) "Have, then, they [who deny the truth] never considered the birds, enabled [by God] to fly in mid-air, ..." (Q. 16:79, Asad); (2) السَّمَاع (hearing), as in وَإِذَا رَأَيْتَ الَّذِينَ يَخُوضُونَ فِي آَيَاتِنَا (الأنعام: ٦٨) "Now, whenever thou hear such as indulge in [blasphemous] talk about Our messages, ..." (Q. 6:68); and (3) التَّعَجُّب (wonder, astonishment, amazement, surprise), as in أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ يُزَكُّونَ أَنْفُسَهُمْ (النساء: ٤٩) "Hast thou not been surprised at those who consider themselves pure?..." (Q. 4:49), and أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ يَزْعُمُونَ أَنَّهُمْ آَمَنُوا بِمَا أُنْزِلَ إِلَيْكَ (النساء: ٦٠) "Hast thou not been surprised at those who claim that they believe in that which is revealed unto thee..." (Q. 4:60).[356]
The term ta‘ajjub is usually translated as "wonder", "astonishment" or "amazement". However, I have chosen “surprise" in translating this term in the above verses, since this word "can also suggest a certain amount of moral condemnation." [357] This "certain amount of condemnation" is also found in the above verses. The first verse was revealed in the cases of the Arabs in the early period of Islam, the Jews and the Christians: The Arabs liked to praise and flatter each other. They claimed to be pure and said that the sins they committed in the day time would be forgiven at night, and vice versa, and therefore were sinless like babies (al-D.ah.h.āk's and al-Suddī's interpretation). The Jews considered themselves "God's chosen people" (see Q. 5:18) and therefore were destined for His grace, whereas the Christians believed in "Jesus's vicarious atonement" for the sins of man. The second verse deals with those who reject the laws of God in general and the hypocrites in particular. [358]
33. النِّسْـيَان (forgetfulness, oblivion)
Two meanings of nisyān in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. ضِدُّ اْلحِفْظ (the opposite to remembering), as in فَإِنِّي نَسِيتُ الْحُوتَ (الكهف: ٦٣ ) "... behold, I forgot about the fish..." (Q. 18:63, Asad).[359]
b. التَّرْك (omission, neglect, abandonment, leaving), as in وَلَقَدْ عَهِدْنَا إِلَى آَدَمَ مِنْ قَبْلُ فَنَسِيَ وَلَمْ نَجِدْ لَهُ عَزْمًا (طه: ١١٥) "And verily We made a covenant of old with Adam, but he neglected it, and We found no firmness of purpose in him." (Q. 20:115). [360] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās according to al-T.abarsī. Ibn Zayd's interpretation is that Adam overlooked the covenant and unintentionally made the mistake by eating the prohibited fruit.[361]
34. الصَّـاعِقَة (bolt of lightning, thunderbolt, thunder) and الصَّعِــق (strike of lightning, the act of stunning or being stunned, unconsciousness)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of s.ā‘iqah and s.a‘aq in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلمَوْت (death) as in وَنُفِخَ فِي الصُّورِ فَصَعِقَ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَنْ فِي الْأَرْضِ (الزمر: ٦٨) "And [on that Day,] the trumpet [of judgment] will be sounded, and all [creatures] that are in the heavens and all that are on earth will die,..." (Q. 39:68).[362]
b. اْلعَذَاب (punishment), as in فَإِنْ أَعْرَضُوا فَقُلْ أَنْذَرْتُكُمْ صَاعِقَةً مِثْلَ صَاعِقَةِ عَادٍ وَثَمُودَ (حم: ١٣) "But if they turn away, say: 'I warn you of [the coming of] a thunderbolt of punishment like the thunderbolt [that fell upon the tribes] of ‘Ād and Thamūd.'" (Q. 41:13, Asad). [363]
c. نَارٌمِنَ السَّحَاب (fire from the cloud), as in وَيُرْسِلُ الصَّوَاعِقَ فَيُصِيبُ بِهَا مَنْ يَشَاءُ (الرعد: ١٣) "...; and He [it is Who] lets loose the thunderbolts and strikes with them whom He wills." (Q. 13:13, Asad). [364]
Another meaning of the term which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is اْلغَشِيّ (unconsciousness), as in وَخَرَّ مُوسَى صَعِقًا (الأعراف: ١٤٣) "...; and Moses fell down in a swoon...." (Q. 7:143). [365] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan and Ibn Zayd. Moses was unconscious and later became conscious again, as the verse continues with فَلَمَّا أَفَاقَ "And when he came to himself..." (Q. 7:143).[366]
35. اْلأَخْـذ (taking, accepting, receiving, seizing)
According to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of akhdh from which other meanings are metaphorically derived is "to take with hand". [367] He does not include it as one of the meanings of the term in the Qur’ān, and therefore, he does not give us any example from it. However, Tiflīsī mentions an example from the Qur’ān in which the term akhdh means the taking itself, namely, وَإِذْ أَخَذَ رَبُّكَ مِنْ بَنِي آَدَمَ مِنْ ظُهُورِهِمْ ذُرِّيَّتَهُمْ (الأعراف: ١٧٢) "And whenever thy Sustainer takes their offspring from the loins of the children of Adam,..." (Q. 7:172).[368]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three metaphorical meanings of akhdh in the Qur’ān as follows:
a. اْلقَبُوْل (acceptance), as in إِنْ أُوتِيتُمْ هَذَا فَخُذُوهُ (المائدة: ٤١) "If such-and-such teaching] is vouchsafed unto you, accept it;..." (Q. 5:41, Asad).[369]
b. اْلحَبْسُ وَ اْلأَسْر (arrest and taking a prisoner, detaining), as in قَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الْعَزِيزُ إِنَّ لَهُ أَبًا شَيْخًا كَبِيرًا فَخُذْ أَحَدَنَا مَكَانَهُ (يوسف: ٧٨) "They said: 'O thou great one! Behold, he has a father, a very old man: detain, therefore, one of us in his stead...." (Q. 12:78, Asad). [370]
c. التَّعْذِيْب (act of punishment, torture), as in وَكَذَلِكَ أَخْذُ رَبِّكَ إِذَا أَخَذَ الْقُرَى وَهِيَ ظَالِمَةٌ إِنَّ أَخْذَهُ أَلِيمٌ شَدِيدٌ (هود: ١٠٢) "And such is thy Sustainer’s punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] whenever He takes to task any community that is given to evildoing: verily, His punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] is grievous, severe!." (Q. 11:102, Asad).[371] Al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī mention one more meaning of akhdh in the Qur’ān, namely, اْلقَتْل (killing), as in وَهَمَّتْ كُلُّ أُمَّةٍ بِرَسُولِهِمْ لِيَأْخُذُوهُ (المؤمن: ٥) "... and each of those communities schemed to kill the messenger sent unto them,..." (Q. 40:5).[372] In the Arabic expression ذَهَبَ بَنُوْ فُلانٍ وَ مَنْ أَخَذَ أَخْذَهُمْ the term akhdh means "manners", "a way of life" or "disposition". Therefore, the above expression means "The sons of So-and-so and those who took to their way of life - and adopt their manners or disposition - went away."[373]
36. السُّلْطَان (strength, might, force, power, authority)
There are two meanings of sult.ān in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. اْلمُلْكُ وَاْلقَهْر (power and force), as in وَمَا كَانَ لِيَ عَلَيْكُمْ مِنْ سُلْطَانٍ إِلَّا أَنْ دَعَوْتُكُمْ فَاسْتَجَبْتُمْ (إبراهيم: ٢٢) ".... Yet I had no power at all over you: I but called you - and you responded unto me...." (Q. 14:22, Asad).[374]
b. الحُجَّـة (argument, evident, proof), as in وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا مُوسَى بِآَيَاتِنَا وَسُلْطَانٍ مُبِينٍ (المؤمن: ٢٣) “And verily We sent Moses with Our revelations and a clear proof..." (Q. 40:23).[375]
37. اْلبَأْسُ وَاْلبَأْسَاء (might, strength and distress)
There are three meanings of ba’s and ba’sā’ mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشِّدَّة (misfortune, hardship, affliction), as in وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا إِلَى أُمَمٍ مِنْ قَبْلِكَ فَأَخَذْنَاهُمْ بِالْبَأْسَاءِ وَالضَّرَّاءِ (الأنعام: ٤٢) "And, indeed, We sent Our messages unto people before thy time, [O Prophet,] and visited them with misfortune and hardship..." (Q. 6:42, Asad).[376]
b. الشِّدَّةُ بِاْلعَذَاب (severe punishment), as in فَلَمَّا رَأَوْا بَأْسَنَا قَالُوا آَمَنَّا بِاللَّهِ وَحْدَهُ (المؤمن: ٨٤) "And, then, when they [clearly] beheld Our punishment, they said: ’We have come to believe in the One God, ..." (Q. 40:84, Asad).[377]
c. الشِّدَّةُ بِالْقِتَال (the strength in fighting), as in عَسَى اللَّهُ أَنْ يَكُفَّ بَأْسَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا (النساء: ٨٤) ".... Allah may well curb the strength in fighting of those who disbelieve ..." (Q. 4:84).[378]
38. اْلخَلْق (creation, making)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of khalq from the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. التَّقْدِيْر (the act of measuring, determining the measure, proportion, or the like, of a thing) which is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of khalq, is derived from the Arabic expressionخَالِقَةُ اْلأَدِيْم ("assessor of skin"), namely, the woman who assesses and measures a piece of leather before cutting it to be made into something such as a waterskin or a haversack. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qur’ān, but from Zuhayr's poem praising a person who carries out what he has determined to do as follows:
وَلَأَنْتَ تَفْرِيْ مَا خَلَقْتَ وَ بَعْـ * ـضُ اْلقَوْمِ يَخْلُقُ ثُمَّ لاَ يَفْرِي
“And thou indeed cuttest [namely, execute] what
thou hast measured [namely, planned]; but some of
the people measure [namely, plan to do something]
then will not cut [namely, execute it].”
(Lane's translation).[379]
b. التَّخَرُّص (fabricating lies). The Arabic expression حَدَّثَنَا فُلاَنٌ بَأَحَادِيْث الخَلْق means "So-and-so related to us legends, fabricated lies." [380] Lane's translation and explanation of the above expression is as follows: "Such a one related to us fictitious tales or stories, such as are deemed pretty, or such as are told by night (for entertainment).”[381] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: إِنْ هَذَا إِلَّا خُلُقُ الْأَوَّلِينَ (الشعراء: ١٣٧)“This is but a fable [namely, fabricated lies] of the men of old." (Q. 26:137).[382] This variant reading, khalq al-awwalīn ("the fables of the men of old"), was that of Ibn Kathīr, al-Kisā’ī, Abū Ja‘far and Abū ‘Amr ibn al-‘Alā’. Another variant reading, khuluq al-awwalīn ("the tradition and religion of the men of old"), was that of the qurrā’ of Madinah in general except Abū Ja‘far, and of Kūfah of later generations in general. Commenting on this reading Ibn ‘Abbās said that the people of ‘Ād told their prophet Hūd that they did what they did according to their ancestors' tradition and religion. [383] This reading was chosen by al-Farrā’ and Ibn Kathīr. [384]
c. التَّصْوِيْر (shaping), as in وَإِذْ تَخْلُقُ مِنَ الطِّينِ كَهَيْئَةِ الطَّيْرِ بِإِذْنِي (المائدة: ١١٠) "... and how thou didst shape of clay as it were the likeness of a bird by My permission...." (Q. 5:110, Pickthall).[385]
d. اْلإنْشَاءُ وَاْلإبْتِدَاء (creating and beginning something), as in هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَكُمْ مِنْ نَفْسٍ وَاحِدَةٍ وَجَعَلَ مِنْهَا زَوْجَهَا (الأعراف: ١٨٩) "It is He who has created you [all] out of one living entity, and out of it brought into being its mate, ..." (Q. 7:189, Asad).[386]
e. الدِّيْن (ordinance, decree, religion), as in لَا تَبْدِيلَ لِخَلْقِ اللَّهِ (الروم: ٣٠) ".... There is no altering Allah's ordinance ..." (Q. 30:30).[387] It means that Allah's decree pertaining to tawh.īd (the Oneness of Allah), justice, and sincerity in worship have to be observed firmly by people. This is the interpretation of al-D.ah.h.āk, Mujāhid, Qatādah, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, Ibrāhīm al-Nakhā‘ī and Ibn Zayd.[388] However, ‘Ikrimah renders another interpretation on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Umar, that the verse means that there is no change in Allah's creation, and therefore, it is prohibited to castrate the livestock.[389]
39. الرَّجْـم (throwing or casting of stones, stoning)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of rajm as follows:
a. الرَّمْـي (throwing), which is the basic meaning of rajm,[390] as in وَلَقَدْ زَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَجَعَلْنَاهَا رُجُومًا لِلشَّيَاطِينِ (الملك: ٥) “And indeed, We have adorned the skies nearest to the earth with lamps [namely, stars], and We have made them missiles for casting at the devils..." (Q. 67:5). [391] This is one interpretation. Another interpretation is that the stars are made as a means of guessing and "missiles thrown at the unseen" (رُجُوْمًا بِاْلغَيْب) by the devils of mankind, namely, astrologers, using stars as guides to the unknown.[392]
b. اْلقَـْتل (killing), as in قَالُوا إِنَّا تَطَيَّرْنَا بِكُمْ لَئِنْ لَمْ تَنْتَهُوا لَنَرْجُمَنَّكُمْ (يس: ١٨) "Said [the others]: 'Truly, we augur evil from you. If you desist not, we will surely kill you...'" (Q. 36:18).[393] Ibn Qutaybah states that it is reported that Qābīl (Cain) killed his brother Hābīl (Abel) by throwing (rajm) stones at him. Since he was the first man killed, the act of killing is metaphorically called rajm, although without using stones. [394] This is the interpretation of Qatādah, while that of Mujāhid isلَأشْتُمَنَّكُمْ ("I shall surely abuse you").[395]
c. الشَّتْم (abuse, scold, vilification), as in قَالَ أَرَاغِبٌ أَنْتَ عَنْ آَلِهَتِي يَا إِبْرَاهِيمُ لَئِنْ لَمْ تَنْتَهِ لَأَرْجُمَنَّكَ (مريم: ٤٦) "He answered: 'Dost thou dislike my gods, O Abraham? Indeed, if thou desist not, I shall surely abuse thee..." (Q. 19:46).[396] This is the interpretation of al-Suddī, Ibn Jurayj, and al-Farrā’, whereas "stoning" as the meaning of rajm here is the interpretation of al-H.asan and al-Jubbā’ī.[397]
d. الظَّـنّ (guess, assumption), as in سَيَقُولُونَ ثَلَاثَةٌ رَابِعُهُمْ كَلْبُهُمْ وَيَقُولُونَ خَمْسَةٌ سَادِسُهُمْ كَلْبُهُمْ رَجْمًا بِالْغَيْبِ (الكهف: ٢٢) "[And in times to come] some will say, '[They were] three, the fourth of them being their dog,' while others will say, 'Five, with their dog as the sixth of them’ - idly guessing at something of which they can have no knowledge - ..." (Q. 18:22, Asad). [398] This is the interpretation of Qatādah and Abū ‘Ubaydah.[399] According ti Ibn ‘Abbās the term رَجْم meaning ظَنّ is the language of Hudhayl.[400]
e. اللَّعْن (curse, banishment). Satan is called rajīm (outcast) because he is repelled with shooting stars (meteors) from ascending to heaven. No example from the Qur’ān is given by Ibn Qutaybah. Others give the following verse: فَإِذَا قَرَأْتَ الْقُرْآنَ فَاسْتَعِذْ بِاللَّهِ مِنَ الشَّيْطَانِ الرَّجِيمِ (النحل: ٩٨) "Now whenever thou happen to read this Qur’ān, seek refuge with Allah from Satan, the accursed [namely, cast at with curse]." (Q. 16:98, Asad).[401]
40. السَّعْي (quick movement, effort)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of sa‘y in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلإسْرَاعُ فِي ْالمَشْي (walking quickly), or العدو (running) as in وَجَاءَ رَجُلٌ مِنْ أَقْصَى الْمَدِينَةِ يَسْعَى (القصص: ٢٠ ) "And [then and there] a man came running from the farthermost end of the city,..." (Q. 28:20, Asad).[402]
b. اْلمَشْي (walking), as in فَلَمَّا بَلَغَ مَعَهُ السَّعْيَ قَالَ يَا بُنَيَّ إِنِّي أَرَى فِي الْمَنَامِ أَنِّي أَذْبَحُكَ (الصافات: ١٠٢) "And when (his son) was old enough to walk with him, (Abraham) said: O my dear son, I have seen in a dream that I must sacrifice thee...." (Q. 37:102, Pickthall). [403] He was at an age where he could assist his father Abraham in his daily affairs according to Mujāhid and Abū ‘Ubaydah, which is approximately thirteen years old. According to Ibn Kathīr, this is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, ‘Ikrimah, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, ‘At.ā’ and Zayd ibn Aslam. This interpretation is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation is that it was the age where he worked for Allah and worshipped Him, according to al-H.asan, al-Kalbī, Ibn Zayd and Muqātil.[404]
c. اْلعَمَل (action, work, effort), as in إِنَّ سَعْيَكُمْ لَشَتَّى (الليل: ٤) "Verily, your effort is dispersed (towards divergent ends)." (Q. 92:4).[405]
d. اْلجِـدّ (striving, labouring) as in وَالَّذِينَ سَعَوْا فِي آَيَاتِنَا مُعَاجِزِينَ أُولَئِكَ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ مِنْ رِجْزٍ أَلِيمٌ (سبأ: ٥) “whereas for those who strive against Our messages, seeking to defeat their purpose, there is grievous suffering in store as an outcome of [their] vileness." (Q. 34:5, Asad).[406]
Despite the difference of meanings, Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of the term sa‘y is walking quickly (الإسْرَاعُ فِي ْالمَشْي). This is also the view of Ibn al-Jawzī. [407]
41. الْمُحْصَنَات (protected women)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of muh.s.anāt as follows:
a. ذَوَاتُ اْلأَزْوَاج (married women), for they are protected by their husbands, as in وَالْمُحْصَنَاتُ مِنَ النِّسَاءِ إِلَّا مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُكُمْ (النساء: ٢٤) "And [forbidden to you are] all married women other than those whom you rightfully possess [through wedlock]..." (Q. 4:24, Asad). [408] Al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarī mention both dhawāt al-azwāj and al-‘afā'if (chaste women) for the meaning of al-muh.s.anāt in this verse.[409] This is also the view of Tha‘lab who says that every ‘afīfah (a chaste woman) is a muh.s.anah (a protected woman) and a muh.s.inah (a self-protecting woman), whereas every married woman is a muh.s.anah only.[410]
b. اْلحَرَائِر (free women, not slaves), although they are unmarried. Unlike slaves, free women can protect as well as be protected. The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: وَمَنْ لَمْ يَسْتَطِعْ مِنْكُمْ طَوْلًا أَنْ يَنْكِحَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ الْمُؤْمِنَاتِ فَمِنْ مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُكُمْ (النساء: ٢٥) "And as for those of you who, owing to circumstances, are not in a position to marry free believing women, [let them marry] believing maidens from among those whom you rightfully possess..." (Q. 4.25, Asad). [411]
c. الْعَفَائِف (chaste women), as in وَالَّذِينَ يَرْمُونَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ (النور: ٤) "And as for those who accuse chaste women [of adultery]..." (Q. 24:4, Asad).[412]
42. اْلمَتَاع (possession, pleasure, object of delight)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us four meanings of matā‘ as follows:
a. اْلمُـدَّة (period of time, limited or appointed time, term), as in وَلَكُمْ فِي الْأَرْضِ مُسْتَقَرٌّ وَمَتَاعٌ إِلَى حِينٍ (البقرة: ٣٦) “;... and on earth you shall have your abode and a period of time till the end (of the appointed time)." (Q. 2:36). Pickthall, Asad and Ali respectively translate matā‘ here as "provision", "livelihood" and "means of livelihood", while according to Ibn Qutaybah it means "a period of time".[413] However, Ibn Qutaybah interprets "enjoyment" (mut‘ah) as the meaning of matā‘ in his Tafsīr. He also interprets the meaning of إِلَى حِينٍ in this verse as إِلىَ أَجَل ("till the oppointed time") which is commonly understood as "till the time of death". [414] Al-Zamakhsharī interprets matā ‘as "enjoyment of life" (تَمَتُّعٌ بِالْعَيْش) , while that of al-T.abarsī is "enjoyment" (إِسْتِمْتَاع) , and h.īn as "the time of death", "the end of the appointed time", or "the day of Resurrection".[415] Ibn Qutaybah's understanding of the verse is that Allah gave Adam temporary life (or enjoyment) on this earth, which would end with death. This life is in contrast with life in Heaven which is permanent and will not end with death.
b. اْلآلاَتُ الَّتِيْ تُنْتَفَعُ بِهَا (tools, utensils), as in وَمِمَّا يُوقِدُونَ عَلَيْهِ فِي النَّارِ ابْتِغَاءَ حِلْيَةٍ أَوْ مَتَاعٍ زَبَدٌ مِثْلُهُ (الرعد: ١٧) "...and, likewise, from that [metal] which they smelt in the fire in order to make ornaments or utensils, [there rises] scum...." (Q. 13:17, Asad). [416]
c. اْلمَنْفَعَة (benefit, avail), as in لَيْسَ عَلَيْكُمْ جُنَاحٌ أَنْ تَدْخُلُوا بُيُوتًا غَيْرَ مَسْكُونَةٍ فِيهَا مَتَاعٌ لَكُمْ (النور: ٢٩) "[On the other hand] you will incur no sin if you [freely] enter houses not intended for living in but serving a purpose useful to you:..." (Q. 24:29).[417]
d. مُتْعَةُ اْلمُطَلَّقَة (the benefit, provision or maintenance a divorced woman gets from her husband after divorce other than the dowry).[418] Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example for this meaning. Others give us the following verse: وَلِلْمُطَلَّقَاتِ مَتَاعٌ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ حَقًّا عَلَى الْمُتَّقِينَ (البقرة: ٢٤١) "And the divorced women, too, shall have [a right to] maintenance in a goodly manner: this is a duty for all who are conscious of God." (Q. 2:241, Asad). [419]
43. اْلحِسَاب (counting, reckoning, calculation)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.isāb in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلكَثِيْر (plenty, abundance). The expression أَحْسِبُ فُلاَنًا means "I gave him what is sufficient for him" (أَعْطَيْتُهُ مَا يَحْسِبُه أَيْ مَا يَكْفِيْه) . The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: (النبأ: ٣٦) جَزَاءً مِنْ رَبِّكَ عَطَاءً حِسَابًا “[All this will be] a reward from thy Sustainer, an abundant gift." (Q. 78:36).[420]
b.اْلجَزَاء (repayment, recompense, punishment), as in إِنْ حِسَابُهُمْ إِلَّا عَلَى رَبِّي لَوْ تَشْعُرُونَ (الشعراء: ١١٣) “Their recompense rests with none but my Sustainer: if you could but understand [this]!” (Q. 26:113Asad).[421]
c. الْمُحَاسَبَة (reckoning, accounting), as in فَسَوْفَ يُحَاسَبُ حِسَابًا يَسِيرًا (الإ نشقاق: ٨) "He will in time be called to account with an easy accounting." (Q. 84:8, Asad).[422]
44. اْلأَمْـر (order, command, decree, authority, affair)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of amr, as follows:
a. اْلقَضَاء (divine decree), as in أَلَا لَهُ الْخَلْقُ وَالْأَمْرُ (الأعراف: ٥٤) "His verily is all creation and divine decree..." (Q. 7:54). [423]
b. الدِّيْن (religion) as in فَتَقَطَّعُوا أَمْرَهُمْ بَيْنَهُمْ زُبُرًا (المؤمنون: ٥٣) "But they (mankind) have broken their religion among them into sects, ..." (Q. 23:53, Pickthall). [424]
c. اْلقَوْل (word, speech, remark, statement, report, account), as in إِذْ يَتَنَازَعُونَ بَيْنَهُمْ أَمْرَهُمْ (الكهف: ٢١) ".... When (the people of the city) disputed their statements among themselves, ..." (Q. 18:21).[425]
d. الْعَذَاب (punishment), as in وَقَالَ الشَّيْطَانُ لَمَّا قُضِيَ الْأَمْرُ (إبراهيم: ٢٢) "And when punishment will be decided, Satan will say..." (Q. 14:22). [426]
e. الْقِيَامَة (resurrection), as in أَتَى أَمْرُ اللَّهِ فَلَا تَسْتَعْجِلُوهُ (النحل: ١)"The commandment of Allah [namely, the resurrection] is [bound] to come: do not therefore, call for its speedy advent!..." (Q. 16:1).[427] This is Ibn ‘Abbās's interpretation. Other interpretations are: Allah's punishment on disbelievers among the idolaters, according to al-H.asan and Ibn Jurayj, and Allah's laws and injunctions, according to al-D.ah.h.āk.[428]
f. اْلقِيَامَةُ أَوِ اْلمَوْت (resurrection or death), as in وَتَرَبَّصْتُمْ وَارْتَبْتُمْ وَغَرَّتْكُمُ الْأَمَانِيُّ حَتَّى جَاءَ أَمْرُ اللَّهِ (الحديد: ١٤) "... and you were hesitant, and you were doubtful; and your wishful thinking beguiled you until Allah's command [namely, resurrection or death] came to pass; ..." (Q. 57:14). [429]
g. اْلوَحْي (inspiration, revelation), as in يَتَنَزَّلُ الْأَمْرُ بَيْنَهُنَّ (الطلاق: ١٢) "Through all of them descends His inspiration,..." (Q. 65:12).[430]
h. الذَّنْب (offence, sin, crime, misdeed), as in فَذَاقَتْ وَبَالَ أَمْرِهَا وَكَانَ عَاقِبَةُ أَمْرِهَا خُسْرًا (الطلاق: ٩) "And thus they had to taste the evil outcome of their own offence, and the consequence of their offence was loss." (Q. 65:9). [431]
i. كُلُّ شَيْء (everything), as in أَلَا إِلَى اللَّهِ تَصِيرُ الْأُمُورُ (الشورى: ٥٣) "....Behold, all things tend towards Allah" (Q. 42:53).[432]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of the term ‘amr. They are only about half of the meanings given by Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī who mention respectively thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, and nineteen meanings. This indicates Ibn Qutaybah's brief account in dealing with the term in particular, and al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā‘ir in the Qur’ān in general.
Among the meanings of ‘amr not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl, are the following:
a. قَتْلُ كُفَّارِ مَكَّةِ بِبَدْر (the execution of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr), as in (الأنفال: ٤٤) لِيَقْضِيَ اللَّهُ أَمْرًا كَانَ مَفْعُولًا "..., (it was) that Allah might conclude a thing [namely, the killing of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr] that must be done..." (Q. 8:44).[433]
b. فَتْحُ مَكَّة (the conquest of Makkah), as in فَتَرَبَّصُوا حَتَّى يَأْتِيَ اللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِ (التوبة: ٢٤) "... then wait till Allah makes manifest His will [namely, the conquest of Makkah]..." (Q. 9:24).[4344] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās and Mujāhid, whereas according to al-H.asan it is the punishment which will be inflicted upon disbelievers.[435]
c. قَتْلُ بَنِيْ قُرَيْظَةَ وَجَلاءُ بَنَِي النَّضِيْر (the execution of Banī Qurayz.ah and the expulsion of Banī al-Nad.īr tribes) as in فَاعْفُوا وَاصْفَحُوا حَتَّى يَأْتِيَ اللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِ ه (البقرة: ١٠٩) ".... Forgive and be indulgent (toward them) until Allah manifests His will [namely, the execution of Banī Qurayz.ah and the expulsion of Banī al-Nad.īr]..." (Q. 2:109).[436]
d. النَّصْر (victory), as in يَقُولُونَ هَلْ لَنَا مِنَ الْأَمْرِ مِنْ شَيْءٍ قُلْ إِنَّ الْأَمْرَ كُلَّهُ لِلَّهِ ه (آل عمران: ١٥٤) ".... They said: 'Have we any part in (achieving) victory?' Say (O Muhammad): 'The victory belongs wholly to Allah....'" (Q. 3:154).[437]
e. اْلمَشْوَرَة (consultation, suggestion), as in قَالَ الْمَلَأُ مِنْ قَوْمِ فِرْعَوْنَ إِنَّ هَذَا لَسَاحِرٌ عَلِيمٌ يُرِيدُ أَنْ يُخْرِجَكُمْ مِنْ أَرْضِكُمْ فَمَاذَا تَأْمُرُونَ (الأعراف: ١٠٩-١١٠) "The great ones among Pharaoh's people said: 'Verily, this is indeed a sorcerer of great knowledge who wants to drive you out of your land!' [Said Pharaoh:] 'What, then, do you advise?'" (Q. 7:109-10, Asad).[439]
f. اْلحِذْر (caution, precaution), as in وَإِنْ تُصِبْكَ مُصِيبَةٌ يَقُولُوا قَدْ أَخَذْنَا أَمْرَنَا مِنْ قَبْلُ (التوبة: ٥٠) ".... and should misfortune befall thee, they will say [to themselves], 'We have already taken our precautions beforehand!'..." (Q. 9:50, Asad).
g. اْْلغَرَق (drowning), as in قَالَ لَا عَاصِمَ الْيَوْمَ مِنْ أَمْرِ اللَّهِ (هود: ٤٣) "(Noah) said: Today there is no protection from Allah's commandment [namely, drowning]..." (Q. 11:43). [440]
h. اْلأَمْر (order, command), as in إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَأْمُرُكُمْ أَنْ تُؤَدُّوا الْأَمَانَاتِ إِلَى أَهْلِهَا (النساء: ٥٨) "Behold, Allah commands you to deliver all that you have been entrusted with unto those who are entitled thereto,..." (Q. 4:58).[441]
i. اْلكَثْرَة (plenty, greatness in number), as in وَإِذَا أَرَدْنَا أَنْ نُهْلِكَ قَرْيَةً أَمَرْنَا مُتْرَفِيهَا (الإسراء: ١٦) "And when We decide to destroy a community We increase the number of its people who have lost themselves entirely in the pursuit of pleasures,..." (Q.17:16)[442] There are four variant readings of amarnā. (1) amarnā which is the common reading; (2) āmarnā which is the reading of ‘Alī, Qatādah, and Abū al-‘Āliyah according to al-T.abarsī, and that of Ibn ‘Abbās according to al-Qurt.ubī; (3) amirnā which is the reading of al-H.asan and Yah.yá ibn Ya‘mar according to al-T.abarsī; and (4) ammarnā which is the reading of Ibn ‘Abbās, Abū ‘Uthmān al-Nahdī, and Abū Ja‘far Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alī according to al-T.abarsī, whereas according to al-Qurt.ubī it is that of Abū al-‘Āliyah, Mujāhid and al-H.asan beside Abū ‘Uthmān al-Nahdī. The first three readings mean "we increased their number", the last means "we made them rulers". [443]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah examined al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir in the Qur’ān very briefly. We have also seen that scholars in later generations treated this field of study very extensively, so that sometimes they included the commentaries of the mufassirīn and gave the specific meanings rather than the wujūh of the terms they were dealing with. It is true that the interpretations of these early mufassirīn were compiled and became a science by itself. We also have seen that despite the differences and variety of interpretations of a certain verse or word, many of them are reconciliable and run together, and this contributes to further understanding of the Qur’ānic texts.
C. Meanings of Particles
Ibn Qutaybah deals with thirty-three particles in his Ta’wīl in a chapter entitled تَفْسِيْرُ حُرُوْفِ اْلمَعَانِيْ وَ مَا شَاكَلَهَا مِنَ اْلأَفْعَالِ اَّلتِيْ لاَ تَنْصَرِفُ ("The Interpretation of Particles and Uninflected Verbs Similar to Them"). The term حُرُوْفُ اْلمَعَانِي (lit. "letters of meanings") for the particles means meaningful letters, which are the opposite of the حُرُوْفُ اْلهِجَاء (alphabetical letters) which have no meaning. These particles are as follows:
1. كَأَيَّنْ (how many a)
The particle ka’ayyin means kam (how many a), as in وَكَأَيِّنْ مِنْ قَرْيَةٍ عَتَتْ عَنْ أَمْرِ رَبِّهَا وَرُسُلِهِ (الطلاق: ٨) “And how many a community has turned with disdain from the commandment of its Sustainer and His apostles..." (Q. 65:8, Asad).[444] The term ka’ayyin can be read as kā’in which is more eloquent in Ibn Qutaybah's view. The example of the latter is in the following poem of Zuhayr:
وَ كَائِنْ تَرَى مِنْ صَامِتٍ لَكَ مُعْجِبٍ * زِيَادَتُهُ أَوْ نَقْصُهُ فِي التَّكَلُّمِ
“How many a silent person whom you admire; his [only]
merit or demerit (lies) in [his] speaking.”[445]
2. كَيْفَ (how)
Kayfa has two meanings:
a. عَلىَ أَيِّ حَال (in what condition), as in the expression كَيْفَ أَنْتَ (how are you) meaning "in what condition are you"? It is here an interrogative particle.
b. التَّعَجُّب (wonder, surprise), as in كَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ بِاللَّهِ وَكُنْتُمْ أَمْوَاتًا فَأَحْيَاكُمْ (البقرة: ٢٨) "How can you refuse to acknowledge God, seeing that you were lifeless and He gave you life,..." (Q. 2:28, Asad).[446] According to al-Zamakhsharī, it implies inkār (rejection, reproach) and ta‘ajjub, whereas according to al-Farrā’ it means ta‘ajjub and tawbīkh (reproof, reproach).[447]
Ibn Fāris gives more details about kayfa. He mentions three meanings of it, two of which are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above. The other meaning is "in whatever condition", as in the expression لَأُكْرِمَنَّكَ كَيْفَ أَنْتَ meaning "I shall surely welcome you in whatever condition you have been عَلىَ أَيِّ حَال)ٍ (كُُنْتَ ." However, he mentions three other meanings, as follows:
a. نَفْي (negation), as in كَيْفَ يَهْدِي اللَّهُ قَوْمًا كَفَرُوا بَعْدَ إِيمَانِهِمْ (آل عمران: ٨٦) "How would God bestow His guidance upon people who have resolved to deny the truth after having attained to faith,..." (Q. 3:86, Asad). It means that Allah will never guide such people.
b. تَوْبِيْخ (reproach), as in وَكَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ وَأَنْتُمْ تُتْلَى عَلَيْكُمْ آَيَاتُ اللَّهِ (آل عمران: ١٠١) "And how could you deny the truth when it is unto you that God's messages are being conveyed, ..." (Q. 3:101, Asad).
c. تَوْكِيْد (emphasis), as in فَكَيْفَ إِذَا جِئْنَا مِنْ كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ بِشَهِيدٍ (النساء: ٤١) "How, then, [will the sinners fare on Judgment Day,] when We shall bring forward a witness from within every community,..." (Q. 4:41). The particle kayfa here emphasises the content of the previous verse, namely, إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَظْلِمُ مِثْقَالَ ذَرَّةٍ (النساء: ٤٠) "Verily, Allah does not wrong [anyone] by as much as an atom's weight;..." (Q. 4:40). It means, Allah would never wrong anybody, not even as much as the weight of an atom (dharrah) in this world, let alone in the Hereafter when He brings of every community a witness...." [448]
Al-Zarkashī gives two more meanings of kayfa other than those mentioned above, namely:
a. لِلتَّحْذِيْر (to give warning), as in فَانْظُرْ كَيْفَ كَانَ عَاقِبَةُ مَكْرِهِمْ (النمل: ٥١) “Behold, then, what all their scheming came to in the end:…” (Q. 27:51, Asad).
b. لِلتَّنْبِيْه (to allert, to call attention) and لِلْإعْتِبَار (to give a lesson, a deterrent example) as in انْظُرْ كَيْفَ فَضَّلْنَا بَعْضَهُمْ عَلَى بَعْضٍ “Behold how We bestow [on earth] more bounty on some of them than on others;” as the verse continues with وَلَلْآَخِرَةُ أَكْبَرُ دَرَجَاتٍ وَأَكْبَرُ تَفْضِيلًا (الإسراء: ٢١) “but [remember] the life to come will be far higher in degree and far greater in merit and bounty.” (Q. 17:21, Asad). [449]
3. سَـوَى , سِـَوى and سُـوَى (except, other than; equal, even)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of the word sawá and siwá as follows:
a. غَيْر (other than), as in the following Dhū al-Rummah's poem:
وَ مَا تَجَافَى اْلغَيْثُ عَنْهُ فَمَا بِهِ * سَوَاءَ الْحَمَامِ اْلحُضَّنِ حَاضِرُ
“And water, [namely, a watering place] avoided by rain
[namely, did not receive water from rain, but from a spring],
so that there was nothing in it [namely, the watering place]
other than green hatching doves.” [450]
The poet was speaking about a dry watering place, as it received its water solely from a spring. The supply of water was so minimal that green doves were able to build their nests and hatch their young in it.
b. وَسَـط (middle), as in فَلَنَأْتِيَنَّكَ بِسِحْرٍ مِثْلِهِ فَاجْعَلْ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكَ مَوْعِدًا لَا نُخْلِفُهُ نَحْنُ وَلَا أَنْتَ مَكَانًا سُوًى (طه: ٥٨) “[Pharaoh said to Moses:] 'But we can surely produce magic to match thine! So make a tryst between us and thee, which we shall not fail to keep - neither we nor thou - in a central place, [namely, equally distant for both sides]." (Q. 20:58).[451]
4. أَيـَّانَ (when)
According to al-Farrā’ and Ibn Qutaybah the particle ayyān is a combination of two words, أيُّ (which, what), and أَوَان (time), so that the expression أيُّ أَوَانmeans "at what time?” The first two letters in أَوَان, namely, أو are dropped and the particle becomes ان, which in turn, combined with اي and finally becomes أَيَّان. The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: أَمْوَاتٌ غَيْرُ أَحْيَاءٍ وَمَا يَشْعُرُونَ أَيَّانَ يُبْعَثُونَ (النحل: ٢١) “They are dead, not living, and they do not [even] know when they will be raised from the dead!" (Q. 16:21, Asad).[452]
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions several views about the origin of the term ayyān, as follows: (1) The same as above, namely, from أَيُّ and أَوَان; however, instead of dropping the first two letters of أَوَان, the first letter alif of أَوَان and the second letter yā’ in أَيُّ are dropped; the two words are combined together and become أَيْوَان; next, the letter و is changed into ي, so that it becomes أَيَّانَ; (2) It originates from the two words أَيُّ آن ("which time"); (3) It originates from the word أَيُّ in the pattern of فَعْلاَن , namely,[453] أَيَّان.
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions further details about the use of the particle ayyān. An unidentified grammarian says that it can be used for the past, whereas others, like Ibn Mālik and Abū H.ayyān, say that it is used exclusively for the future. It is used for questioning about a great event according to al-Sakkākī, while the common view among the Arabic grammarians is that, like the word matá, it can be used for any event. [454]
5. اْلآنَ (now, at present)
According to al-Farrā’, quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, the origin of الآنَ is أَوَان. The first letter (alif) was dropped, the second letter (wāw) was turned into alif which was combined with the remaining alif, and the word became in accusative case, namely, آنَ (āna). The definite article ال was added to it, and it became اْلآنَ (al-āna). The example given by Ibn Qutaybah is as follows: ءَالْآنَ وَقَدْ عَصَيْتَ قَبْلُ وَكُنْتَ مِنَ الْمُفْسِدِينَ (يونس: ٩١) “[But God said:] ‘Now? [thou repent, when it is too late?] When ever before this thou hast been rebelling [against Us], and hast been among those who spread corruption?’" (Q. 10:91, Asad).[455] This was said by Allah to Pharaoh who was repenting while he was drowning.
Al-Suyūt.ī gives us more details about the meaning of al-ān. He says that although the term means the present, it can also be used metaphorically for other than the present. A group of philologists specify the meaning of this term to indicate the boundary between the past and the future, although it could also mean what is close to either of the two (past or future), namely, what has just happened (the present perfect tense) as well as what is going to happen. Jamāl al-Dīn ibn Mālik (d. 672/1274) the author of the poems on grammar known as the Alfīyah ("The One Thousand Liner") states that the term al-ān is to indicate the whole present time, such as the time of doing or saying something, or some of this present time. The example of the past with some present time is the following Qur’ānic verse: الْآَنَ خَفَّفَ اللَّهُ عَنْكُمْ (الأنفال: ٦٦) “Now hath Allah lightened your burden ...” (Q. 8:66, Pickthall); it is like saying أَكَلْتُ اْلآن, meaning "I have eaten just now". The example of the future with some present time is as follows: فَمَنْ يَسْتَمِعِ الْآَنَ يَجِدْ لَهُ شِهَابًا رَصَدًا (الجن: ٩) "... and anyone who now [or ever] tries to listen will [likewise] find a flame lying in wait for him!" (Q. 72:9, Asad). Moreover, the use of al-ān here is in general sense, not restricted to the present.[456]
6. أَنَّـى (how, wherefrom)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of anná, as follows:
a. كَيْفَ (how) as in قَالَ أَنَّى يُحْيِي هَذِهِ اللَّهُ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا (البقرة: ٢٥٩) "He said: How could Allah bring this [township] back to life after its death?" (Q. 2:259). [457]
b. مِنْ أَيْنِ (wherefrom, whence), as in أَنَّى يَكُونُ لَهُ وَلَدٌ (الأنعام : ١٠١) "... where can He have a child from... " (Q. 6:101).[458]
Three different interpretations were given by the commentators concerning the meaning of anná in the following verse: فَأْتُوا حَرْثَكُمْ أَنَّى شِئْتُمْ (البقرة: ٢٢٣) “... go, then, unto your tilth as you may desire, ..." (Q. 2:223). It means: كَيْفَ according to Mujāhid, al-Farrā’ Ibn Qutaybah, and Ibn al-Jawzī;[459] مِنْ أَيْنَ according to Qatādah and al-Rabī‘; and مَتَى ("when") according to al-Daāk which is rejected by the philologists, as stated by al-T.abarsī, because the term anná never means "when".[460]
7. وَيْكَأَنَّ (alas, ah, wellady)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of wayka’anna, as follows:
a. أَلَمْ تَرَ (do you not see), which is the opinion of al-Kisā’ī, as in وَيْكَأَنَّ اللَّهَ يَبْسُطُ الرِّزْقَ لِمَنْ يَشَاءُ ... وَيْكَأَنَّهُ لَا يُفْلِحُ الْكَافِرُونَ (القصص: ٨٢) "Do you not see how Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will.... Do you not see how the disbelievers never prosper?" (Q. 28:82).[461]
b. أَوَلاَ يَعْلَمُ (does he not know) which, according to Ibn Qutaybah, is the interpretation of Qatādah and a shāhid for al-Kisā’ī’s interpretation, so that the above-mentioned verse means, "Does he not know that Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will....? Does he not know that the disbelievers never prosper?"[462]
c. رَحْمَـةً لَكَ (a mercy for you), which is, according to some unidentified linguists, the language of H.imyar. Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any example for this meaning.[463]
Al-Suyūt.ī adds details about the term wayka’anna and its origin, and states four views: that of al-Kisā’ī, al-Akhfash, al-Khalīl, and Ibn al-Anbārī. The term, according to al-Kisā’ī, is used for regret(تَنَدُّم) and wonder(تَعَجُّّب) . It is originally from وَيْلَكَ. The word كَ is a second person pronoun in the genitive form. According to al-Akhfash, وَيْ is a verbal noun (ism fi‘l) meaning "I wonder", كَ is the second person pronoun; أَنَّ is originally لِأَنَّ with the ellipsis of li. Therefore, the verse mentioned above means, according to al-Akhfash أَعْجَبُ لِأَنَّ اللهَ "I wonder because Allah ..." Al-Khalīl's view is that, simply stated, وَيْ stands alone, and كَأَنَّ is a separate word indicating investigation(تَحْقِيْق) , not similarity(تَشْبِيْه) , namely, it does not mean "as if" in this sense. Ibn al-Anbārī's view is that the term has three meanings: أَلَمْ تَرَ (“do you not see”), وَيْلَكَ (“woe unto you”), and that وَيْindicating wonder is joined with كَأَنَّ due to its frequent use; it is similar to the joining of words inيَبْنَأُمَّ which is derived from يَا إبِْنَ أُمِّي ("O son of my mother").[464]
8. كَأَنَّ (as if, as though)
The particle ka‘anna is a combination of the particle ka ("as", "like") and anna ("that"). It is used for a simile, such as the expression شَرِبَ شَرَابًا كَعَسَلٍ ("He drank a drink like honey") is similar to شَرِبَ شَرَابًا كَأَنَّهُ عَسَل ("He drank a drink as if it were honey"). It functions the same as ka if it were without tashdīd, and with the ellipsis of any pronoun attached to it, such as ka’annahu becomes ka’an in the following poem of Abū Muh.ammad ‘Abd Allāh ibn Barrī (d. 582/1187) to al-Mufad.d.al al-Nukrī, describing a horse:
جُمُوْمُ الشَّدِّ شَائِلَهُ الذُّنَابَى * وَهَادِيْهَا كَأَنْ جِذْعٌ سَحُوْقُ
“He is very strong; his tail is raised while galloping,
and his neck is like a long palm stump.”[465]
9. لاَتَ (not)
The particle lāta, as stated by Sībawayh, to some extent, is similar to laysa ("not to exist", "not to be"). Unlike laysa, lāta is indeclinable, as in فَنَادَوْا وَلَاتَ حِينَ مَنَاصٍ (ص: ٣) “..., and they called [unto Us] when it was no longer the time for escape." (Q. 38:3).[466]
According to some unidentified grammarians of the Baghdādī school ت in لَاتَ is separated from لَا (meaning "no"), and is connected with , حِينَ so that لَاتَ حِينَ was originally لَا تَحِينَ. Thisت is additional to حِينَ as well as to other words, such as الآنَ, which becomes تَلاَنَ. As a shāhid, they cite the poem of Abū Wajzah, as follows:
العَاطِفُوْنَ تَحِيْنَ مَا مِنْ عَاطِفٍ * وَ اْلمُطْعِمُوْنَ زَمَانَ مَا مِنْ مُطْعِمِ
“[They are] the compassionates when there is no compassionate,
and the feeders in the time when there is no feeder.” [467]
According to Ibn Qutaybah, lāta is the combination of lā with the additional h, so that lā becomes lāh, and later becomes lāta. It is like the word ثُمَّ (thumma) which becomes ثُمَّـه (thummah) and ثُمَّـةَ (thummata). He cites the view of Ibn al-A‘rābī who says that العَاطِفُوْنَ in the poem mentioned above was originally العَاطِفُوْنَه with the additional h, then it was started with حِينَ. However, if we join the two words, the h becomes ta; instead of saying al-‘āt.ifūnah h.īna mā we say al-‘āt.ifūnata h.īna ma.[468] This view of Ibn Qutaybah, despite his belonging to the Baghdādī school, is in line with that of Abū ‘Ubaydah, as well as the Kūfī and the Bas.rī grammarians. [469]
10. مَهْمَـا (whatever, whatsoever)
The particle mahmā functions as mā in recompense, such as وَقَالُوا مَهْمَا تَأْتِنَا بِهِ مِنْ آَيَةٍ لِتَسْحَرَنَا بِهَا فَمَا نَحْنُ لَكَ بِمُؤْمِنِينَ (الأعراف: ١٣٢) "And they said [unto Moses:] 'Whatever sign thou mayest produce before us in order to cast a spell upon us thereby, we shall not believe thee!'" (Q. 7:132). [470]
Ibn Qutaybah states the view of al-Khalīl and Sībawayh on the particle mahmā as follows: According to al-Khalīl, the origin of mahmā is mā added with an ineffectual mā (اُدْخِلَتْ مَعَهَا لَغْواً); the alif of the first mā is replaced with h, so that مَامَا becomes مَهْمَـا . He asserts that this ineffectual mā can also be added to matá, such as the expression مَتَى تَأْتِيْنِيْ آتِكَ can also be rendered مَتَى مَا تَأْتِيْنِيْ آتِكَ; it can also be added to ayy, such as أَيًًًّا مَا تَدْعُوا فَلَهُ الْأَسْمَاءُ الْحُسْنَى (الإسراء: ١١٠) "... by whichever name you invoke Him, [He is always the One] His are the most beautiful names..." (Q. 17:110), meaning as أَيًًًّا تَدْعُوا ("unto whichever ye cry"). Sībawayh asserts that it is possible that mahmā was originally mah with an additional mā; it is the same as mā added to idh.[471]
11. مَا (what) and مَنْ (who)
In this section Ibn Qutaybah examines mā and its meanings, including man. He does not treat man independently. He states that originally mā and man have the same meaning, then man was used for human beings, and mā for others. He cites three examples of the meanings of mā as follows:
a. مَنْ (who, whom) as in وَمَا خَلَقَ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى (الليل: ٣) "And Him Who hath created male and female." (Q. 92:3, Pickthall). This is the opinion of Abū ‘Ubaydah.[472]
b. الَّذِيْ (who, which), as in the above verse.[473] This interpretation of mā with al-ladhī in the above verse is from al-H.asan and al-Kalbī.[474] This interpretation is advocated by Abu ‘Amr ibn al-‘Alā’ who contends that the people of Makkah, when they heard thunder, used to say to it سُبْحَانَ مَا سَبَّحْتَ لَهُ meaning سُبْحَانَ الَّذِيْ سَبَّحْتَ لَهُ "Glorified be Whom you have glorified"). [475]
c. مَا turns its succeeding verb into mas.dar; it is what modern grammarians call mā mas.darīyah. This is the view of al-Farrā’, who interprets the above verse as وَخَلََْقُهُ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى "And His creation of male and female."[476]
The meanings of mā were extensively discussed by grammarians in the past. Ibn al-Anbārī, for example, mentioned three meanings: (1) al-ladhī, such as the expression عَبْدُ اللهِ قََامَ meaning عَبْدُ اللهِ الَّذِيْ قََامَ ("‘Abd Allāh who stood up"); (2) lam (not), such asعَبْدُ اللهِ مَا قََامَ meaning عَبْدُ اللهِ لَمْ يَقُمْ ("‘Abd Allāh did not stand up"); and (3) mazīdah (additional), such as إِنََّّ اللَّهَ لَا يَسْتَحْيِي أَنْ يَضْرِبَ مَثَلًا مَا بَعُوضَةً فَمَا فَوْقَهَا (البقرة : ٢٦) (Q. 2:26) in which mā is additional.[477] Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī mentioned six and seven meanings respectively, whereas Ibn Fāris and al-Suyūt.ī both mentioned eight meanings. [478]
Despite the discrepancy which occasionally occurred in the interpretation of the particle mā in the verses of the Qur’ān, these various interpretations are generally reconciliable, and even complement each other. For example, in the verse قُتِلَ الْإِنْسَانُ مَا أَكْفَرَه (عبس : ١٧) (Q. 80:17), according to Tiflīsī's interpretation, mā means "what"[479] (أََيُّ شَيْء) ; this is the interpretation which is adopted by A.Y. Ali when he translates the above verse as follows: "Woe to man! What hath made him reject God?" [480] On the other hand, al-Zamakhsharī and al-Suyūt.ī asserts that mā in this verse indicates wonder; [481] this is the interpretation followed by M.M. Pickthall when he translates the verse as follows: "Man is (self-) destroyed: how ungrateful!" [482] Both interpretations are mentioned by al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarsī.[483] The third interpretation is that of Ibn al-Jawzī who maintains that mā indicates wonder in the interrogative form [484] بِمَعْنَى التَّعَجُّبُ عَلىَ لَفْظِ) (اْلإسْتِفْهَام, namely, in modern terminology, a rhetorical question (إسْتِفْهَامٌ إنْكَارِيّ).
12. كَادَ (almost, nearly, to be near to, to be on the point of)
The term kāda, like karaba and awshaka, belongs to the category of verbs called by the grammarians af‘āl al-muqārabah, namely, verbs which indicate being on the verge of doing something. [485] According to Ibn Qutaybah, the term kāda means "to be on the point of (doing something) but did not do it" (هَمَّ وَلَمْ يَفْعَلْ) . It is not followed by an; therefore, it is not right to say كَادَ أَنْ يَفْعَلَ, but rather كَادَ يَفْعَل , as in فَذَبَحُوهَا وَمَا كَادُوا يَفْعَلُونَ (البقرة: ٧١) ".... So they sacrificed her [namely, the cow], though almost they did not." (Q. 2:71, Pickthall).[486] However, kāda followed by an occurs in poetry,[487] as in the following poem of Ru’bah: قَدْ كَادَ مِنْ طُوْلِ البِلاَ أَنْ يَمْحَصَا "It had nearly come to nought from length of wear." (Lane's translation)[488]
Another view is that kāda indicates the occurrence of something كَادَ) (بِمَعْنَى فَعَلَ, such as the following poem of Dhū al-Rummah:
وَ لَوْ أَنَّ لُقْمَانَ اْلحَكِيْمَ تَعَرَّضَتْ * لِعَيْنَيْهِ مَيٌّ سَافِرًا كَادَ يَبْرَقُ
“And if Luqman the sage happened to take a glance
at Mayy unveiled, he would be surprised.”
Here kāda yabraqu ("he would be on the point of being surprised") means labariqa ("he would be surprised).[489]
According to this view the term kāda here is, as stated by al-Murtad.á, additional and has no function, and therefore is not translated. Similarly, the verse لَمْ يَكَدْ يَرَاهَا (النور : ٤٠) (Q. 24:40) means لَمْ يَرَهَا ("he does not see it"). The term yakad here is not only additional, but is also said to function as emphasis. However, another view says that yakad in the above verse is not additional. [490]
Al-Suyūt.ī gives us more details on kāda. He asserts that the term indicates that something nearly happened. If it is followed by a negation, then it negates that it nearly happened. On the other hand, the affirmation of itindicates the affirmation that it had nearly happened.[491]
Al-Suyūt.ī notes that it is commonly said that kāda with negation indicates the occurrence of the action, whereas kāda with affirmation indicates the negation of such an occurrence. For example, مَا كَادَ يَفْعَلُ (he almost did not do) means فَعَلَ (he did), as in Q. 2:71 mentioned above. This is also Ibn Fāris's view.[492] The expression كَادَ زَيْدٌ يَفْعَلُ (Zayd almost did) means لَمْ يَفْعَلْ (he did not do), as in وَإِنْ كَادُوا لَيَفْتِنُونَكَ (الإسراء: ٧٣) "And they almost beguile thee (Muhammad)..." (Q. 17:73).[493]
Al-Suyūt.ī rejects the view that the present tense of kāda with negation indicates that the action does occur, as in لَمْ يَكَدْ يَرَاهَا (النور : ٤٠) "... he cannot nearly see it" (Q. 24:40, Rodwell),[494] since he does not see anything. He contends that instead of "he almost does not see it" the meaning of the verse is "he does not almost see it (or, he is not near to seeing it)", namely, the negation of almost (or the nearness to) seeing it, let alone seeing it. [495] The same with Q. 2:71 above where the people of Moses slaughtered the cow; before that, they had not almost done it, namely, they had been far from slaughtering it. [496]
Al-Suyūt.ī also states that kāda sometimes means arāda (to want), as in أَكَادُ أُخْفِيهَا (طه : ١٥) "... I want to keep it hidden..." (Q. 20:15). This view is also mentioned by al-Murtad.á and Ibn al-Anbārī.[497] On the other hand, arāda sometimes means kāda, as in جِدَارًا يُرِيدُ أَنْ يَنْقَضََّ (الكهف : ٧٧) “... a wall upon the point of falling into ruin..." (Q. 18:77). [498]
13. بَلْ (nay, rather; even; but; however, yet)
Bal is a particle of digression and emendation; it denotes digression from that which precedes. Ibn Qutaybah mentions two ways of using bal, as follow:
a. to correct a wrong statement, such as رَأَيْتُ زَيْدًا بَلْ عَمْرًا "I saw Zayd, nay, rather ‘Amr."
b. to shift from one object of discourse to another, as in ص وَالْقُرْآَنِ ذِي الذِّكْرِ. بَلِ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فِي عِزَّةٍ وَشِقَاقٍ (ص: ١-٢ ) "Sād. Consider this Qur’ān, endowed with all that one ought to remember! But nay - they who are bent on denying the truth are lost in [false] pride, and [hence] deeply in the wrong." (Q. 38:1-2, Asad).[499] According to al-Tha‘ālibī the meaning of bal in the above verse is inna ("verily").[500]
14. هَلْ (an interrogative particle introducing direct and indirect questions)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions the function and meanings of hal, as follows:
a. It is used to ask questions, [501] as in قُلْ هَلْ مِنْ شُرَكَائِكُمْ مَنْ يَبْدَأُ الْخَلْقَ ثُمَّ يُعِيدُهُ (يونس: ٣٤) "Say: 'Can any of those beings to whom you ascribe a share in God's divinity create [life] in the first instance, and then bring it forth anew?'" (Q. 10:34, Asad). [502] Ibn Qutaybah states that there is تَقْرِيْر (affirmation) and تَوْبِيْخ (reproach) in this verse. The taqrīr is the affirmation that none of the partners ascribed to Allah by infidels can produce creation and reproduce it, except Allah Himself. The tawbīkh is reproaching the infidels for believing and ascribing partners to Allah.
b. قَــدْ (already) in some Qur’ānic verses, according to the Qur’ānic commentators, such as Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Kisā’ī, Sībawayh, al-Farrā’, al-Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī and al-Zarkashī, as in هَلْ أَتَى عَلَى الْإِنْسَانِ حِينٌ مِنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُنْ شَيْئًا مَذْكُورًا (الدهر: ١) “There has already been an immensely long span of time when man was not yet a thing to be thought of." (Q. 76:1).[503]
c. مَـا (not), according to the linguists, as in هَلْ يَنْظُرُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ تَأْتِيَهُمُ الْمَلَائِكَةُ (الأنعام: ١٥٨) “Wait they [namely, they did not wait], indeed for nothing [namely, anything] less than the angels should come to them..." (Q. 6:158).[504]
Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention four meanings of hal, whereas Ibn al-Jawzī mentions seven meanings as above. The rest are as follows:
a. أَلاَ (an expression indicating a polite offer, such as, "shall I...?", "would you like ...", etc), [505] as in هَلْ أَدُلُّكُمْ عَلَى تِجَارَةٍ (الصف: ١٠) “Shall I point out to you a bargain...” (Q. 61:10, Asad).[506]
b. أَلَيْسَ (negative question, such as "is it not", etc), as in هَلْ فِي ذَلِكَ قَسَمٌ لِذِي حِجْر (الفجر: ٥) "Is not in all of this, to anyone endowed with reason, a solemn affirmation [of the existence and oneness of Allah]?." (Q. 89:5).
c. اْلأَمْر (command), as in قَالَ هَلْ أَنْتُمْ مُطَّلِعُونَ (الصافات: ٥٤) "[And] He adds: 'Would you like to look [and see him]?'" (Q. 37:54, Asad), meaning "look [at him]!"
d. السُّؤَال (request), as in يَوْمَ نَقُولُ لِجَهَنَّمَ هَلِ امْتَلَأْتِ وَتَقُولُ هَلْ مِنْ مَزِيدٍ (ق: ٣٠) "On the day when We will ask Hell: 'Art thou filled?' - and it will answer: '[Give me] more'" (Q. 50:30). [507]
15. لَوْلاَ and لََوْمَا (if only, were it not that, were it not for; why not, why was there not)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of law lā as follows:
a. هَـلاَّ (why not). It is a word indicating incitement to do, or reproof for not doing something, if it is not followed by a main clause (jawāb), as in the Arabic expression لَوْ فَعَلْتُُ كَذَا (If only I did such-and-such), and in the Qur’ānic verse فَلَوْلَا إِذْ جَاءَهُمْ بَأْسُنَا تَضَرَّعُوا (الأنعام: ٤٣) "If only, when Our disaster came on them, they had been humble!" (Q. 6:43, Pickthall). [508] Similarly, law mā sometimes also means hallā, as in لوما تأتينا بالملائكةلَوْ مَا تَأْتِينَا بِالْمَلَائِكَةِ (الحجر: ٧) "Why dost thou not bring before us angels ..." (Q. 15:7, Asad), meaning "If only you would bring angels before us..." [509]
b. لَوْلاَ (if not, were it not that), indicating something has not taken place due to the occurrence of something else, if law lā is followed by a main clause, as in فَلَوْلَا أَنَّهُ كَانَ مِنَ الْمُسَبِّحِينَ. لَلَبِثَ فِي بَطْنِهِ إِلَى يَوْمِ يُبْعَثُونَ (الصافا ت: ١٤٣-١٤٤) "And had he not been of those who glorify (Allah), he would have indeed remained in its belly till the Day all shall be raised from the dead." (Q. 37:143-1444).[510]
c. لَـْم (not), according to some commentators, as in فَلَوْلَا كَانَتْ قَرْيَةٌ آَمَنَتْ فَنَفَعَهَا إِيمَانُهَا إِلَّا قَوْمَ يُونُسَ (يونس: ٩٨ ) "For, there has never yet been any community that has ever believed and profited by its belief except the people of Jonah" (Q. 10:98). [511]
16. لَمَّـا (not, not yet; when, as; since, whereas)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of lammā as follows:
a. لَـْم (not, not yet), as in بَلْ لَمَّا يَذُوقُوا عَذَابِ (ص: ٨ ) “... Nay, they have not yet tasted the suffering which I do impose!" (Q. 38:8, Asad).[512]
b. إلَّا (but, except), as in وَإِنْ كُلُّ ذَلِكَ لَمَّا مَتَاعُ الْحَيَاةِ الدُّنْيَا (الزخرف: ٣٥) ".... Yet, all this would have been nothing but a [brief] enjoyment of life in this world..." (Q. 43:35, Asad). [513]
c. لَمَّـا (when, at the time when, at the time of) if it is followed by a main clause, as in لَمَّا جَاءَ أَمْرُ رَبِّكَ (هود: ١٠١) “.... And when thy Sustainer's judgment came to pass, ..." (Q. 11:101, Asad). [514]
17. أَوْ (or)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of aw as follows:
a. لِلشَّكّ (to indicate doubt), such as the expression رَأَيْتُ عَبْدَ اللهِ أَوْمُحَمَّدًا ("I saw ‘Abd Allah or Muh.ammad").[515]
b. لِلتَّخْيِيْرِ بَيْنَ الشَّيْئَيْن (to choose between two things), namely, or, as in فَفِدْيَةٌ مِنْ صِيَامٍ أَوْ صَدَقَةٍ أَوْ نُسُكٍ (البقرة: ١٩٦) "...[he] shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or [any other] act of worship...." (Q. 2:196, Asad). [516]
c. وَاوُالنَّسَق (the conjunction "and"), as in فَالْمُلْقِيَاتِ ذِكْرًا.عُذْرًا أَوْ نُذْرًا (المرسلات: ٥-٦) "and then giving forth a reminder, [promising] freedom from blame or [offering] a warning!" (Q. 77:5-6, Asad).[517] Al-Farrā’ rejects the occurrence of aw meaning wa in Arabic language other than in the Qur’ān as in the above example. Giving the example of the verse وَإِنَّا أَوْ إِيَّاكُمْ لَعَلَى هُدًى أَوْ فِي ضَلَالٍ مُبِينٍ (سبأ: ٢٤) “... And behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His oneness] are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray!" (Q. 34:24, Asad), al-Farrā’ says that the commentators' interpretation of this verse is "we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray". In the expression إِنْ شِئْتَ فَخُذْ دِرْهَمًا أَوْ دِرْهَمَيْن ("if you like take one or two dirhams"), it never means "take one and two", namely, three. Therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "we are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray, and you, too, are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray", whereas Allah knows that His messenger is on the right path, and the others have clearly gone astray. It is the same as saying "one of us is a liar" when we accuse somebody of lying, but not openly.[518]
d. بَلْ ("nay, rather", "nay, but"), as in وَأَرْسَلْنَاهُ إِلَى مِئَةِ أَلْفٍ أَوْ يَزِيدُونَ (الصاّفّات: ١٤٧) "And [then] We sent him [once again] a hundred thousand [souls], nay, rather more." (Q. 37:147). [519] This interpretation, however, is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah who claims that bal is used to correct a wrong statement. He maintains that instead of bal, the particle aw in the above verse means wa. As evidence, he quotes Jarir's poem as follows:
أَ ثَعْلَبَةَ اْلفَوَارِسَ أَوْ رِيَاحَا * عَدَلْتَ بِهِمْ طُهَيَّةَ وَاْلخِشَابَا
“How did you make the [two] tribes Tha‘labah the knights
and Riyah. equal to T.uhayyah and Khishāb tribes?” [520]
This is a clear evidence for those who claim that Ibn Qutaybah does not belong to either the grammarian school of Bas.rah or Kūfah, but of Baghdād, the mixture of the two schools. The former school says that aw cannot be interpreted as wa or bal, but the latter allows it, whereas Ibn Qutaybah says that it can be interpreted as wa, but not as bal. [521] The argument of the grammarians of Bas.rah is as follows: (1) If aw can be interpreted as bal in this poem, then this can also be applied to other poems or expressions. For example, the expression ضَرَبْتُ زَيْدًا أَوْ عَمْرًا ("I beat Zayd or ‘Amr") can never mean ضَرَبْتُ زَيْدًا بَلْ عَمْرًا ("I beat Zayd, nay, rather ‘Amr"); (2) Bal is used to correct a mistake or a forgotten thing. Allah never forgets or makes mistakes. When He uses it, it means to correct the previous statement which is not His, as in وَقَالُوا اتَّخَذَ الرَّحْمَنُ وَلَدًا سُبْحَانَهُ بَلْ عِبَادٌ مُكْرَمُونَ (الأنبياء: ٢٦) “And [yet] some say: 'The Most Gracious has taken unto Himself a son!' Limitless is He in His glory! Nay, [those whom they regard as God's 'offspring' are but His] honoured servants." (Q. 21:26, Asad). [522]
Defending the school of Kūfah in general and al-Farrā’ in particular who holds this view, Ibn Fāris asserts that this view had been adopted by people before al-Farrā’. Moreover, it is wrong to assume that bal can only be used after a mistake or forgetting, as the Arabs cite the following poem of al-‘Ajjāj: بَلْ ما هاجَ أحْزاناً وشَجْواً قَدْ شَجَا ("Nay, but he did not agitate sorrows and distress which has appeared"). Here, bal neither corrects a mistake nor has the sense of aw. With regard to the verse ثُمَّ قَسَتْ قُلُوبُكُمْ مِنْ بَعْدِ ذَلِكَ فَهِيَ كَالْحِجَارَةِ أَوْ أَشَدُّ قَسْوَةً (البقرة: ٧٤) "And yet, after all this, your hearts hardened and became like rocks, or even harder,..." (Q. 2:74, Asad), or وَمَا أَمْرُ السَّاعَةِ إِلَّا كَلَمْحِ الْبَصَرِ أَوْ هُوَ أَقْرَبُ (النحل: ٧٧) “.... And so, the advent of the Last Hour will but manifest itself [in a single moment,] like the twinkling of an eye, or closer still..." (Q. 16:77, Asad), Ibn Fāris gives his commentary as follows: In these verses the Speaker, namely, Allah, knows whether their hearts were hardened like rocks or harder, or whether the advent of the Last Hour will manifest itself in a twinkling of an eye or closer, but He wants to keep them secret, and therefore puts aw. Another interpretation, however, is that in Q. 2:74 some of their hearts are as hard as rocks, and others are harder than rocks. [523]
There are other meanings of أو which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. For example,إلاَّ (unless) mentioned by Ibn Fāris, as in the expression لَأَلْزَمَنَّكَ أَوْ تُعْطِيَنِي حَقِّي ("I will surely force you, or [namely, unless] you give me my right"). [524] Al-Tha‘ālibī mentions two other meanings, namely,إِلىَ (till, up to), and حَتـَّى (until). The example of the former is in Imru’ al-Qays's following poem which he cited while he was coming to the Caesar for help against the Banī Asad tribe that had killed his father:
فَقُلْتُ لَهُ : لاَ تَبْكِ عَيْنَكَ إنَّمَا * نُحَاوِلُ مِلْكًا أَوْ نَمُوْتُ فَنُعْذَرَا
“So, I said to him: 'Do not let your eyes weep;
verily, we are trying (to get our) right or [namely, until]
we die; in that case, we shall be excused.'” [525]
The example of the latter is the following poem: ضَرْبًا وَ طَعْنًا أَوْ يَمُوْتُ اْلأَعْجَل “with beating and stabbing or [namely, until] he dies the quickest (death)". [526] This poem was probably a description of a fight where a person kept attacking his enemy fiercely and did not stop fighting until he was killed.
18. أَمْ ("or", introducing the second member of an alternative question)
Two meanings of am are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. أَوْ (or), as in أَأَمِنْتُمْ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاءِ أَنْ يَخْسِفَ بِكُمُ الْأَرْضَ فَإِذَا هِيَ تَمُورُ. أَمْ أَمِنْتُمْ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاءِ أَنْ يُرْسِلَ عَلَيْكُمْ حَاصِبًا (الملك: ١٦-١٧) "Can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not cause the earth to swallow you up when, lo and behold, it begins to quake? Or can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not let loose against you a deadly stormwind, ...?" (Q. 67:16-17, Asad).[527]
b. أَلِفُ اْلإسْتِفْهَام (alif as an interrogative particle), as in أَمْ يَحْسُدُونَ النَّاسَ عَلَى مَا آَتَاهُمُ اللَّهُ مِنْ فَضْلِهِ (النساء: ٥٤) "Do they, perchance, envy other people for what Allah has granted them out of his bounty?..." (Q. 4:54, Asad). This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah. [528] Ibn Qutaybah maintains that there are many verses in the Qur’ān where the particle am serves as alif istifhām, especially when the am does not constitute an alternative question, as in الم. تَنْزِيلُ الْكِتَابِ لَا رَيْبَ فِيهِ مِنْ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ. أَمْ يَقُولُونَ افْتَرَاهُ (السجدة : ١-٣) "Alif Lam Mim. (This is) the revelation of the Book in which there is no doubt, - from the Lord of the worlds. Or do they say, 'He has forged it'?" (Q. 32:1-3, Ali). Ibn Qutaybah asserts that since the particle am here is not preceded by another question, then it serves as alif istifhām. Otherwise, it means aw. [529] Ali translates am as an interrogative particle aw above.
There are other meanings of am which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, among which are as follows:
a. بَلْ , as in أَمْ يَقُولُونَ شَاعِرٌ (الطور: ٣٠) "Nay, rather they say: '(he is), a poet' ..." (Q. 52:30). [530]
b. وَ , as in أَمْ يَقُولُونَ افْتَرَاهُ "And they assert, '[Muh.ammad] has invented it." (Q. 10:38). [531]
c. additional اَمْ , as in أَمْ أَنَا خَيْرٌ مِنْ هَذَا الَّذِي هُوَ مَهِينٌ وَلَا يَكَادُ يُبِينُ (الزخرف : ٥٢) I am surely better than this contemptible man who can hardly make his meaning clear." (Q. 43:52).[532]
19. لَا (not)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions one meaning only of lā, namely lam, with one example from the Qur’ān, and two from poetry. The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فَلَا صَدَّقَ وَلَا صَلَّى (القيامة: ٣١) "… for [as long as he was alive] he did not accept the truth, nor did he pray [for enlightenment]." (Q. 75:31, Asad). One example from poetry is the poem of Abū Khirāsh al-Hudhalī as follows:
إن تَغْفِرِ اللَّهُمَّ تغفِرْ جَمّا * وأيُّ عبدٍ لَكَ لا أَلَمّا
“ If you forgive, Oh God, forgive generously; (for) is there
any servant of Yours who does not commit sin?” [533]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions three meanings of lā, one of which is lam as mentioned above. The other two are lā indicating negation (لَا النَّافِيَة in modern terminology), and lā indicating prohibition (لَا النَّاهِيَة in modern terminology). Their respective examples are as follows: وَلَا يُكَلِّمُهُمُ اللَّهُ يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ وَلَا يُزَكِّيهِمْ (البقرة: ١٧٤) “And God will not speak to them on the Day of Resurrection, nor will He cleanse them [of their sins]; ..." (Q. 2:174, Asad), and وَلَا تَنْسَ نَصِيبَكَ مِنَ الدُّنْيَا (القصص: ٧٧) "... and do not forget thine own [rightful] share in this world, ..." (Q. 28:77). [534]
Ibn al-Anbārī includes the term lā among the ad.dād (words which have opposite meanings). Beside negation, lā could also mean affirmation, if the sentence is affirmative, and lā in it is additional, such as in the verse: قَالَ مَا مَنَعَكَ أَلَّا تَسْجُدَ إِذْ أَمَرْتُكَ (الأعراف: ١٢ ) "Allah said: 'What has kept thee from prostrating [lit., 'from not prostrating'] thyself when I commanded thee?' ..."(Q. 7:12), meaning ما مَنَعَكَ أَنْ تَسْجُدَ “What prevented you from prostrating." In this case, lā is s.ilah according to al-Farrā’ and al-Zamakhsharī, [535] whereas according to Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn al-Anbārī, Ibn Kathīr and al-Qayrawānī it is additional (zā’idah).[536] This is also the view of Qut.rub who says that like mā, lā occurs additionally in the Qur’ān.[537]
There are also different views on the position of lā in the beginning of many verses of the Qur’ān, such as لَا أُقْسِمُ بِيَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (القيامة: ١) "Nay, I swear by the Day of Resurrection" (Q. 75:1, Pickthall). Al-Kisā’ī, for example, says that lā in this case is additional. This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah. On the other hand, according to al-Farrā’, it is not additional, but a negation of the infidels' allegation that Allah has a son, a companion and a spouse. [538] Many Qur’ānic verses refer to the unbelievers' allegation that Allah has a son (Q. 2:116, 10:68, 18:4, 19:36, 19:91 and 21:26). Two verses deny the allegation that Allah has a son and a consort (Q. 6:101 and 72:3).
20. أَوْلىَ (nearer)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us one meaning of awlá, namely, intimidation and threats (تَهْدِيْدٌ وَوَعِيْد), as in أَوْلَى لَكَ فَأَوْلَى. ثُمَّ أَوْلَى لَكَ فَأَوْلَى (القيامة: ٣٤-٣٥) “[And yet, O man, thine end comes hourly] nearer unto thee and nearer - and ever nearer unto thee and nearer." (Q. 75:34-5, Asad), meaning, "Threat be upon you again and again with your end."[539]
The term awlá in the expression awlá lahu means, according to al-Asma‘ī, "his ruin is approaching"قَارَبَهُ مَا يُهْلِكُه)ُ . This is also the view of Tha‘lab and al-Nah.h.ās. Tha‘lab says that the Arabic expression awlá laka means that the ruin is near as if it is said to him قََدْ وَلِيْتَ اْلهَلاك ("You are approaching the ruin), as the origin of awlá is al-walyu, meaning "nearness". Al-Nah.h.ās says that awlá laka means كِدْتَ تَهْلِكُ ("you almost became ruined"), as if it is said, "the ruin is near to you". [540]
21. لاَ جَـرَمَ (surely, certainly, definitely, of course)
According to al-Farrā’ lā jarama meant the same as lā budda (definitely, inevitably) and lā mah.ālah (positively, absolutely, by all means); then, through its frequent expression, it meant an oath, and eventually it also meant h.aqqan (truly, certainly). The expression لاَ جَرَمَ لَآتِيَنَّكَ means "truly, I shall certainly come to you". The basic meaning of jarama, according to al-Farrā’, is kasaba (to earn, obtain, acquire, gain), as in the following poem of Abū Asmā’ ibn al-D.arībah or ‘Atīyah ibn ‘Afīf:
وَلَقَدْ طَعَنْتَ أَبَا عُيَيْنَةَ طَعْنَةً * جَرَمَتْ فَزَارَةَ بَعْدَهَا أَنْ يَغْضَبُوْا
“And verily thou [Karz al-‘Uqaylī] didst thrust Abū ‘Uyaynah
[of the Fazārah tribe] with a thrust [of thy spear] that caused
Fazārah [tribe] after it, to be angry [against thee].”
(Lane's translation).[541]
The expression فُلَانٌ جَارِمُ أَهْلِهِ means كَاسِبُهُمْ ("their provider"). Sin, Ibn Qutaybah contends, is called jurm, because it is acquisition and perpetration.[542]
There are five Qur’ānic verses with the expression lā jarama, but Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any of them. They are Q. 11:22, 16:23, 62 and 109, and 40:43. Al-Suyūt.ī gives four interpretations of the meaning of lā jarama as follows: (1) Lā is the negation of what is mentioned before, jarama means "true", so that the expression لاَ جَرَمَ أَنَّ means "nay, it is true that..." (2) Lā is additional, jarama means kasaba, so that the expression mentioned above means كَسَبَ لَهُمْ عَمَلَهُمُ النَّدَامَة “may their deed provide for them remorse" (3) Lā and jarama are two words combined to mean "truly"; and (4) Lā jarama means lā budda.[543]
22. إنَّ اْلخَفِيْفَةَ (light "in")
Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of the light in, as follows:
a. مَا (not), as in إِنْ كَانَتْ إِلَّا صَيْحَةً وَاحِدَةً فَإِذَا هُمْ خَامِدُونَ (يس: ٢٩) "Nothing was [needed] but one single blast [of Our punishment] - and lo! they became as still and silent as ashes." (Q. 36:29, Asad).[544]
b. لَقَدْ (verily), as in إِنْ كَانَ وَعْدُ رَبِّنَا لَمَفْعُولًا (الإسراء: ١٠٨)".... Verily, our Sustainer's promise has been fulfilled." (Q.17:108, Asad).[545]
c. إذْ (since, as, because), as in وَذَرُوا مَا بَقِيَ مِنَ الرِّبَا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُؤْمِنِينَ (البقرة: ٢٧٨ ) "..., and give up all outstanding gains from usury, since ye are truly believers." (Q. 2:278).[546] This meaning is based on the views of unspecified Qur’ānic commentators by Ibn Qutaybah. He asserts that philologists do not put idh as the meaning of in in the above or similar verses; therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "whoever becomes a true believer will stop practising usury." [547]
There are three other meanings of in which are not treated by Ibn Qutaybah in this section, as follows:
a. إنْ (the conditional "if"), as in إِنْ أَحْسَنْتُمْ أَحْسَنْتُمْ لِأَنْفُسِكُمْ وَإِنْ أَسَأْتُمْ فَلَهَا (الإسراء: ٧) "[And We said:] 'If you persevere in doing good, you will but be doing good to yourselves; and if you do evil, it will be [done] to yourselves....'" (Q. 17:7, Asad), and قُلْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تُحِبُّونَ اللَّهَ فَاتَّبِعُونِي (آل عمران: ٣١) “Say [O Muh.ammad, to mankind): 'If ye love Allah, follow me;...'" (Q. 3:31, Pickthall). [548]
b. إنْ زَائِدَة (in as additional), as in وَلَقَدْ مَكَّنَّاهُمْ فِيمَا إِنْ مَكَّنَّاكُمْ فِيهِ (الأحقاف: ٢٦) "And yet, We had established them securely in a manner in which We have never established you, [O people of later times;]..." (Q. 46:26, Asad). [549]
c. إنْ ("verily", "surely"), as in قَالُوا إِنْ هَذَانِ لَسَاحِرَانِ (طه: ٦٣) "... saying [to one another]: 'These two are surely sorcerers..." (Q. 20:63, Asad), based on the variant reading of H.afs. and Ibn Kathīr. [550]
23. هـا (ha! hey! look! there!)
According to Ibn Qutaybah the particle hā is synonymous with the imperative khudh ("take!") and tanāwal ("take!", "accept!"), such as in the imperative expression هَا يَا رَجُلُ "Take [it], man!"). The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: هَاؤُمُ اقْرَءُوا كِتَابِيَهْ (الحاقة: ١٩) "... Take, read my book!" (Q. 69:19, Pickthall). The origin of hā’um is hākum where the letter kāf is substituted with the letter hamzah.[551]
Another view, as stated by Ibn Manz.ūr, is that ha is h.arf tanbīh ("the letter of alertness"), namely, an interjection at the beginning of the sentence used to attract the listener's attention similar to the English "hey". For example, هَذَا أَخُوْكَ (lit., "Hey, this is your brother") and هَا إَنَّ ذَا أَخُوْكَ (lit., "Hey, indeed, this is your brother"). [552] According to Ibn Zayd and Ibn ‘At.īyah hā means ta‘āl ("come!"), while according to Muqātil it means halumma ("come on!").[553]
According to Ibn Qutaybah, the dual of hā’um is hā’umá. [554] This is also the view of Ibn al-Sikkīt and al-Kisā’ī who say that the Arabs say هَاءَ يَا رَجُلُ for the singular, هَاؤُمَا يَا رَجُلانِ for the dual, and هَاؤُمْ يَا رِجَالُ for the plural; for the feminine gender, they say هَاءِ يَا اْمْرَأَةُ, هَاؤُمَا يَا امْرَأَتَانِ, and [هَاؤُمْنَ يَا نِسْوَة. [551
24. هـَاتِ
According to Ibn Qutaybah, hāti is synonymous with the imperative "give me", as in قُلْ هَاتُوا بُرْهَانَكُمْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ صَادِقِينَ (البقرة: ١١١) ".... Say: Give me your proof (of what you are claiming) if what you say is true!" (Q. 2:111). He quotes al-Farrā’ who said that he had never heard of هَاتِيَا , the dual number for هَاتِ, but the singular and plural only, namely, هَاتِ and هَاتِيْ (for singular feminine), and هَاتُوْا and هَاتِيْنَ (for plural feminine). Negation is expressed by مَا أُهَاتِيْكَ meaning مَا أُعَاطِيْكَ ("I shall not give you"), but the Arabs do not say it for the past tense, such as هَاتَيْتُ ("I have given"), nor in the negative imperative, such as لاَ تُهَاتِ ("do not give!").[556]
25. تَعَال (lit., "be elevated!", "come up!” " come!")
The original meaning of ta‘āl, according to al-Farrā’, as quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, is عَالِ إِلَيْنَا ("come up to us!"), but through popular usage the term became synonymous with هَلُـمَّ ("come!"), so much so that it can be said to a person on an elevated place تَعَـال ("come up!"), when we actually mean "come down!". It can be used for the singular feminine gender (تَعَالِى), for the dual (تَعَالَيَا), the plural masculine (تََعَالَوْا), and the plural feminine (تَعَالَيْنَ). Although it cannot be used for the negative imperative, it can be used in the past and the present tenses, such as تعاليتُ ("I came"), and إِلَى أَيِّ شَيْءٍ أَتَعَالىَ؟ ("To what thing shall I come?"). The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فَقُلْ تَعَالَوْا نَدْعُ أَبْنَاءَنَا وَأَبْنَاءَكُمْ (آل عمران: ٦١) "..., say: Come:! Let us summon our sons and your sons,..." (Q. 3:61, Asad).[557]
26. هَلُمَّ (come!, come on!, onward!, up!, get up!)
Halumma means تَعَـال (come!, come up!). The people of H.ijāz do not make it dual or plural, as it is invariably used for the singular, the dual, the plural, masculine and feminine. The Banū Tamīm people of Najd, however, make dual and plural of it, and say هَلُمِّي for singular feminine, هَلُمَّـا for dual, هَلُمُّـوا for plural masculine, and هَلُمْـنَ for plural feminine. هَلُمَّ can be followed by la, for example, هَلُمَّ لَكَ and [558] هَلُمَّ لَكُمْ.
There are two Qur’ānic verses mentioning this term, neither of which is given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example. They are قُلْ هَلُمَّ شُهَدَاءَكُمُ (الأنعام: ١٥٠) "Say: 'Bring forward your witnesses...'"(Q. 6:150, Asad) and وَالْقَائِلِينَ لِإِخْوَانِهِمْ هَلُمَّ إِلَيْنَا (الأحزاب: ١٨) "..., as well as those who say to their brethren, 'come hither to us...'"(Q. 33:18, Asad). It is used here invariably, namely, in the language of H.ijāz, although it indicates plural in both verses.
Philologists have different views about the origin of halumma. Al-Khalīl asserts that its origin is the combination of هَـا for calling attention (لِلتَّنْبِيْه), and لُـمَّ (imperative verb from لَمَّ meaning "to collect", "to settle"). The alif of هَا is dropped, and it becomes هَلُـمَّ. Al-Farrā’, on the other hand, asserts that it is the combination of the words hal and ’umma. It is like allāhumma which is originally from يَا اللهُ أُمَّنَا بِخَيْر ("O Allah, lead us well"). [559] Ibn Fāris states that, according to some philologists whom he does not identify, this term is originally from هَلْ أَؤمّ meaning "shall I lead (the way)?"; it was originally an expression given by a person who is going to bring the meal. This expression develops and later becomes an invitation to a meal. However, in Ibn Fāris's view, the term is ambiguous.[560]
27. كَـلَّا (not at all!, on the contrary!, by no means! certainly not!, never!, no!)
The term kallā indicates prevention (رَدْع) and rebuke [561] (زَجْر). Ibn Qutaybah cites six Qur’ānic verses as examples, two of which are as follows:
a. يَحْسَبُ أَنَّ مَالَهُ أَخْلَدَهُ. كَلَّا لَيُنْبَذَنَّ فِي الْحُطَمَةِ (الهمزة: ٣-٤) "thinking that his wealth will make him live for ever. Nay, but [in the life to come such as] he shall indeed be abandoned to crushing torment!" (Q. 104:3-4, Asad). Here, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, kallā means "his wealth will not make him live for ever". Therefore, it rejects the previous statement in the verse preceding it.
b. ثُمَّ إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا بَيَانَهُ (كَلَّا بَلْ تُحِبُّونَ الْعَاجِلَةَ (القيامة: ١٩-٢٠) "… and then, behold, it will be for Us to make its meaning clear. Nay, but [most of] you love this fleeting life." (Q. 75:19-20, Asad). Kallā here means "stop hurrying" [562]إِنْتَه)ِ (أَنْ تَعْجَلَ بِهِ. In other words, kallā in this verse reproves the earlier statement indicating that the Prophet moved his tongue in haste in repeating the revelation, namely, لَا تُحَرِّكْ بِهِ لِسَانَكَ لِتَعْجَلَ بِهِ (القيامة: ١٦) "Move not thy tongue in haste, [repeating the words of the revelation:]" (Q. 75:16, Asad).
Ibn al-Jawzī cites two meanings of kallā, as follows: (a) لا (not) which is found in fourteen verses of the Qur’ān, among which is Q. 104:4 mentioned above; (b) حَقًّّا (truly, verily) which is found in nineteen verses of the Qur’ān, among which is Q. 75:20 mentioned above. [563]
28.
رُوَيْدًا (slowly, gently, leisurely)
The term ruwaydan means مَهْـلاً (slowly, gently, leisurely). Ibn Qutaybah cites only one example from the Qur’ān, namely فَمَهِّلِ الْكَافِرِينَ أَمْهِلْهُمْ رُوَيْدًا (الطارق: ١٧) “Let, then, the deniers of the truth have their will: let them have their will (amhilhum) for a little while." (Q. 86:17, Asad). However, he says that here ruwaydan means qalīlan (for a little while). [564] If the term is not preceded by amhilhum in the above verse, then it means mahlan. It is always in the diminutive form (tas.ghīr), and in imperative mood, except in the following poem where it is neither in diminutive form nor in imperative mood: كَأَنَّهَا ثَمِلٌ يَمْشِيْ عَلىَ رُوْدِ "She is like a drunk walking slowly." [565]
29. أَلَا (a particle indicating alertness)
The term alā is used and added to the sentence to indicate alertness. The expression أَلاَ إِنَّ اْلقَوْمَ خَارِجُوْن means "Understand (ifham) that people are going out." The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: أَلَا يَوْمَ يَأْتِيهِمْ لَيْسَ مَصْرُوفًا عَنْهُمْ (هود: ٨) "Oh, verily, on the Day when it befalls them there will be nothing to avert it from them; ..." (Q. 11:8, Asad). [566]
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions three functions of alā, one of which is to alert the listener (لِلتَّنْبِيْه), as mentioned above. The other two are to incite (لِلتَّحْضِيْض), and to offer (لِلْعَرْض), as in the following respective examples: أَلَا تُقَاتِلُونَ قَوْمًا نَكَثُوا أَيْمَانَهُمْ (التوبة: ١٣) "Would you, perchance, fail to fight against people who have broken their solemn pledges, ..." (Q. 9:13, Asad), and أَلَا تُحِبُّونَ أَنْ يَغْفِرَ اللَّهُ لَكُمْ (النور: ٢٢) "... do you not desire that God should forgive you your sins,..?" (Q. 24:22, Asad).[567]
30. اْلوَيْـل (affliction, distress, woe)
Al-wayl, as stated by Ibn Qutaybah, is a word that combines all bad things (كَلِمَةٌ جَامِعَةٌ لِلشَّرِّ كُلِّه). He quotes al-As.ma‘ī's view who says that the term indicates taqbīh (the act of denouncing something as ugly or disgraceful), such as وَلَكُمُ الْوَيْلُ مِمَّا تَصِفُونَ (الأنبياء: ١٨) “.... But woe unto you for all your [attempts at] defining [God]." (Q. 21:18, Asad). The expression لَهُ اْلوَيْلُ وَاْلأَلِيْل means "woe and moaning to him". It is also used to express tah.assur (regret) and tafajju‘ (agony, affliction, grief), as in قَالُوا يَا وَيْلَنَا إِنَّا كُنَّا ظَالِمِينَ ( الأنبياء: ١٤) "And they could only cry: 'Oh, woe unto us! Verily, we were wrongdoers!'" (Q. 21:14, Asad). [568]
There are many different views about the meaning of wayl, among which are the following: al-Khalīl: the severity of evil (shiddat al-sharr); al-As.ma‘ī: agony (tafajju‘); Abū Zayd: disaster; Sībawayh: a person who is in disaster; Ibn ‘Arafah: sadness; this view is similar to that of al-Farrā’ who says that the origin of wayl is way, meaning sadness.[569]
31. لَعَمْرُكَ (by your life)
The expression la‘amruk (by your life) and la‘amr Allāh (by the everlasting existence of Allah, by the Eternal God) are oaths. [570] Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the only example from the Qur’ān which is as follows: لَعَمْرُكَ إِنَّهُمْ لَفِي سَكْرَتِهِمْ يَعْمَهُونَ (الحجر: ٧٢) "Verily, by thy life (O Prophet), in their wild intoxication, they wander in distraction, to and fro." (Q. 15:72, Ali). Ibn ‘Abbās was reported to have said that Allah never swears with the life of a person except with that of Prophet Muh.ammad. [571]
32. إِيْ (yes, yea)
According to Ibn Qutaybah iy means balá (yes, indeed, certainly, surely). It is used before an oath ,[572] as in (يونس: ٥٣) وَيَسْتَنْبِئُونَكَ أَحَقٌّ هُوَ قُلْ إِي وَرَبِّي إِنَّهُ لَحَقٌّ "And some people ask thee, 'Is all this true?' Say: 'Yea, by my Sustainer! It is most certainly true, ...'" (Q. 10:53, Asad).[573] Sometimes we hear people join إي with the وَاوُالْقَسَم that follows it and sayإيْوَ meaning "yes".[574]
33. لَدُنْ (on, at, upon, from)
Ladun means ‘inda (on, at, upon, from), as in قَدْ بَلَغْتَ مِنْ لَدُنِّي عُذْرًا (الكهف: ٧٦) "...[for by] now thou hast heard enough excuses from me." (Q. 18:76, Asad). The letter ن in لَدُنْ can be dropped, as in the following poem of Ghaylān ibn H.ārith al-Rub‘ī in describing the camel he was driving:
يَسْتَوْعِبُ البُوعَيْنِ مِْن جَريرِهِ * مِنْ لََدُ لَحْيَيْهِ إلى مُنْحُورِهِ
“It takes two elbows long upon its rope from its two jaws
to its upper chest [namely, it has a long neck].” [575]
Ibn Qutaybah also mentions ladá which is similar to ladun, meaning ‘inda, as in وَأَلْفَيَا سَيِّدَهَا لَدَى الْبَابِ (يوسف: ٢٥) "... - and [lo!] they met her lord at the door." (Q. 12:25, Asad). [576]
So far, we have seen how Ibn Qutaybah dealt with the thirty-three particles and uninflected verbs in his work Ta’wīl. Most of them were mentioned very briefly. For example, the term la‘amruk, was covered in less than two lines, iy in two, kayfa and ayyāna in four, awlá and alā in five, lā, al-wayl and hā in six lines. We have also seen that other scholars, such as Ibn al-Jawzī, Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Qurt.ubī and al-Suyūt.ī gave much more details regarding these terms than Ibn Qutaybah. However, despite his brevity, we note that some of his contributions highlight his deep understanding of this subject. Ibn al-Jawzī in his work Nuzhah, for example, mentions Ibn Qutaybah by name and quotes his interpretations of several terms and particles more than forty times.
D. The Substitution of Particles in
the Verses of the Qur’ān
According to Ibn Qutaybah there are particles in the verses of the Qur’ān that substitute each other. Besides Ta’wīl, this topic is also discussed by him in his work Adab al-Kātib, although in some cases he does not give examples from the Qur’ān in it. However, I shall also include in this study some examples which have not been quoted by him but have been quoted by other scholars.
These particles were not treated by later scholars as substituting or being in the sense of (synonymous with) each other, but as having many wujūh. These particles are: لِ , فِيْ , عَنْ , عَلِى , بِ , إِلىَ and مِنْ . They are dealt with as follows:
1. إِلىَ (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until)
a. Ilá in the sense of ma‘a (with),[577] as in فَلَمَّا أَحَسَّ عِيسَى مِنْهُمُ الْكُفْرَ قَالَ مَنْ أَنْصَارِي إِلَى اللَّهِ (آل عمران: ٥٢) "And when Jesus became aware of their refusal to acknowledge the truth, he asked: 'Who will be my helpers in God's cause?'..." (Q. 3:52, Asad). The verse means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, "... who will be my helpers with Allah [578](مَعَ الله). The example from the Arabs' expression is the proverb الذَّوْدُ إِلَى الذَّوْدِ إِبِل which means "a small group of camels (from three to nine heads) with another small group makes a larger group of camels (ibil).[579]
b. Ilá in the sense of fī, as in the expression جَلَسْتُ إِلىَ اْلقَوْمِ meaning [580] جَلَسْتُ فِيْهِمْ. The example given by al-Suyūt.ī is the following verse: لَيَجْمَعَنَّكُمْ إِلَى يَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (النساء: ٨٧) “.... [God] … will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection..." (Q. 4:87, Asad). [581]
There are two more particles substituted by إِلىَ mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his work Adab al-Kātib but without any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a) Ilá in the sense of min, as in the following poem of Hanī‘ ibn Ah.mar al-Kinānī: يُسَقَّى فَلا يُرْوَى إليَّ ابْنُ أَحْمَرا “He was given drink, so there is no drink from me, Ibn Ah.mar." (b) Ilá in the semse of ‘inda, as in the expression هُوَ أَشْهى إِلَيَّ مِنْ كَذَا ("it is more delicious to me than such and such") in which ilayya ("to me") is in the sense of ‘indī ("for me").[582]
2. بِ (in, at, on; with; through, by means of)
a. Bi in the sense of ‘an, as in فَاسْأَلْ بِهِ خَبِيرًا (الفرقان: ٥٩)".... Ask, then, about Him, [the] One who is [truly] aware." (Q. 25:59, Asad). Here bihi is in the sense of ‘anhu. [583] The example from poetry is the following poem of ‘Alqamah ibn ‘Abadah:
فإِنْ تَسْأَلُونِي بالنِّسَاءِ فإِنَّني * بَصِيرٌ بأَدْواءِ النِّسَاءِ طَبيبُ
“And if ye ask me regarding [the diseases of] women,
verily, I ppossess knowledge of the diseases of
women, [I am] a physician.”
Here bi ’l-nisā’ is in the sense of ‘an al-nisā'.[584]
b. Bi in the sense of li (for), as in مَا خَلَقْنَاهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ (الدخان: ٣٩) “We created them not save with truth [namely, for the truth]." (Q. 44:39, Pickthall). [585]
The creation of the heavens and the earth bi’l-h.aqq (lit. "with truth") is mentioned in Q. 6:73, 14:19, 16:3, 29:44, 39:5, 45:22 and 64:3. In other verses it is stated that Allah did not create the heavens, the earth and all that is between them, namely, the entire universe, except bi’l-h.aqq (Q. 15:85, 30:8 and 46:3). On the other hand, Allah says that He has not created heaven and earth and all that is between them bāt.ilan (lit. "in vain") (Q. 38:27). Moreover, those who are endowed with insight and keep remembering Allah will say after reflecting the creation of the heavens and the earth: رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَذَا بَاطِلًا (آل عمران: ١٩١)"Our Lord! Thou createdst not this in vain (bāt.ilan)." (Q. 3:191, Pickthall). Here the term bāt.ilan, meaning "without meaning and purpose" (as translated by Asad) is the opposite of bi’l-h.aqq, which means, "with a definite purpose and meaning". Bi’l-h.aqq also means lil-h.aqq, "for a definite purpose and meaning" if we assume that bi is in the sense of li in the above verses as stated by Ibn Qutaybah.
c. Bi in the sense of min, as in عَيْنًا يَشْرَبُ بِهَا عِبَادُ اللَّهِ (ا لدهر: ٦) “A fountain from which the servants of God shall drink." (Q. 76:6, Lane). According to Ibn Qutaybah, the expression yashrabu bihā in this verse is in the sense of yashrabu minhā. It is similar to the expression شَرِبْتَ بِمَاءِ كَذَا وَ كَذَا which means شَرِبْتُ مِنْ مَاءِ كَذَا وَ كَذَا ("I drank such and such water"). [586] From poetry he quotes the poem of Abū Dhu’ayb al-Hudhalī describing the clouds as follows:
شَرِبْنَ بِمَاءِ اْلبَحْرِ ثُمَّ تَرَفَّعَتْ * مَتَى لُجَجٍ خُضْرٍ لَهُنَّ نَئِيْجُ
“ They [namely, the clouds] drank from the water
of the sea, then rose up from the green depth of
the sea passing quickly and noisily.” [587]
d. Bi meaning fi, as in the following poem of al-A‘shá: مَا بُكَاءُ اْلكَبِيْرِ بِاْلأَطْلاَل meaning "what is (the benefit of) the old man's crying over the ruins" in which bi’l-at.lāl means fī ’l-at.lāl. [588] The examples given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī respectively are as follows: بِيَدِكَ الْخَيْرُ (آل عمران: ٢٦)".... In Thy hand is all good...." (Q. 3:26, Asad), and وَلَقَدْ نَصَرَكُمُ اللَّهُ بِبَدْرٍ (آل عمران: ١٢٣) "for indeed God did succour you at Badr,..." (Q. 3:123, Asad). [589]
e. Bi meaning ‘alá, as in the poem of ‘Amr ibn Qami’ah when he says بِوُدِّكَ مَا قَوْمِيْ ("On your affection to my people..."), in which bi means ‘alā, and mā is additional. [590] The examples from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī respectively are as follows: يَوْمَئِذٍ يَوَدُّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا وَعَصَوُا الرَّسُولَ لَوْ تُسَوَّى بِهِمُ الْأَرْضُ (النساء: ٤٢) "On that day those who disbelieved and disobeyed the messenger will wish that the ground would become levelled on them" (Q. 4:42) and مَنْ إِنْ تَأْمَنْهُ بِقِنْطَارٍ (آل عمران: ٧٥) "... who, if thou trust him with a treasure,..." (Q. 3:75) in which biqint.ār means ‘alá qint.ār.[591]
f. Bi meaning min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the poem of Labīd when he said: غَلَبُ تُشَدُّ بِالذُّحُوْل "acts of conquering were scattering for the sake of blood revenge." [592] The examples from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī are respectively as follows: وَالَّذِينَ هُمْ بِهِ مُشْرِكُونَ (النحل: ١٠٠) "..., and those who, because of him (Satan) become polytheists." (Q. 16:100) in which bihi means min ajlihi; and فَكُلًّا أَخَذْنَا بِذَنْبِهِ (العنكبوت: ٤٠) “Each one of them We seized for his crime: ..." Q. 29:40, Ali), in which bidhanbihi means min ajli dhanbihi.[593]
3. عَلىَ (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for)
a. ‘Alá in the sense of (meaning) min (from), as in الَّذِينَ إِذَا اكْتَالُوا عَلَى النَّاسِ يَسْتَوْفُونَ (المطففين: ٢) "Who, when they take by meas0ure from men, take fully" (Q. 83:2, Lane), in which ‘alá ’l-nās means min al-nās.[594] The example from poetry is the poem of S.akhr al-Ghayy, as follows:
مَتَى تُنْكِرُوْهَا تَعْرِفُوْهَا * عَلىَ أَقْطَارِهَا عَلَقٌ نَفِيْثُ
“[I am going to tell you about an essay (maqālah) you cannot deny], whenever you deny it you will know that blood will spill from its sides [namely, an essay that will kindle war and spill blood].” [595]
b. ‘Alá meaning ‘inda (at, near, by, with, on; upon), as in وَلَهُمْ عَلَيَّ ذَنْبٌ فَأَخَافُ أَنْ يَقْتُلُونِ (الشعراء: ١٤) “And (further), they have a charge of crime against me, so that I fear they may slay me." (Q. 26:14, Ali), in which ‘alayya dhanb means ‘indī dhanb.[596]
c. ‘Alá meaning fī, as in the expression كَانَ كَذَا عَلىَ عَهْدِ فُلان ("It was so in the time of So-and-so"), in which ‘alá ‘ahd means fī ‘ahd, and in وَاتَّبَعُوا مَا تَتْلُو الشَّيَاطِينُ عَلَى مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانَ (البقرة: ١٠٢) “And they followed what the devils related (or recited) in the time of (or during) the reigh of Solomon..." (Q. 2:102, Lane). Here ‘alá mulki means fī mulki. [597]
d. ‘Alá meaning bi, as in the expression إِرْكَبْ عَلىَ اسْمِ الله meaning إِرْكَبْ بِاسْمِ الله ("Mount thou in the name of God." Lane).[598] Al-Dāmaghānī cites the following verse as an example: وَعَلَى اللَّهِ فَتَوَكَّلُوا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُؤْمِنِينَ (المائدة: ٢٣) "....So put your trust (in Allah) if ye are indeed believers." (Q.5 :23, Pickthall), in which ‘alá Allāh means bi Allāh.[599]
e. ‘Alá meaning ma‘a, as in the poem of al-Shammākh as follows:
وَ بُرْدَانِ مِنْ خَالٍ وَ سَبْعُوْنِ دِرْهَمًا - عَلَى ذَاكَ مَقْرُوْظٌ مِنَ القِّدِّ مَاعِزُ
“And two special kinds of garments and seventy dirhams;
with that, a goat's skin thong tanned with pods of
acacia nilotica (a species of sant tree).” [600]
Al-Suyūt.ī cites the following example وَآَتَى الْمَالَ عَلَى حُبِّهِ (البقرة: ١٧٧) "...; and giveth his wealth, (accompanied) with his love, ..." (Q. 2:177), in which ‘alá h.ubbihi means ma‘a h.ubbihi as translated above. [601] Al-Qurt.ubī suggests two meanings for h.ubbihi in the above verse: "his love for his wealth", and "his love for the persons mentioned later: his kinsfolk, orphans, etc". [602] Pickthall and Ali, however, translate ‘alá h.ubbihi respectively as "for love of Him" and "out of love for Him", namely, Allah.[603]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two more examples of substitutions of particles with ‘alá in his work Adab al-Kātib, without giving any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a). ‘Alā in the sense of ‘an, as in the expression رَضِيْتُ عَلَيْكَ meaning رَضِيْتُ عَنْكَ ("I have been pleased with you"), and رَمَيْتُ علىَ اْلقَوْس meaning رَمَيْتُ عَنِ اْلقَوْس “I shot [the arrow] from the bow"). [604] (b) ‘Alá in the sense of li, as in the poem of al-Rā‘ī (‘Ubayd ibn al-H.usayn al-Numayrī), رَعَتْهُ أَشْهُرًا وَخَلىَ عَلَيْهَا ("She took care of him for months and he devoted himself to her"), in which khalá ‘alayhā means khalá lahā.[605]
4. عَنْ (off, away, from; out of, about; for)
a. ‘An in the sense of bi (in, at, on, with), as in the expression رَمَيْتُ عَنِ اْلقَوْس meaning رَمَيْتُ بِاْلقَوْس ("I shot with the bow"),[606] and as in وَمَا يَنْطِقُ عَنِ الْهَوَى (النجم: ٣) “And neither does he speak out of his own desire.” (Q. 53:3, Asad).
b. ‘An in the sense of min, as in the expression أَخَذْتُ هَذَا عَنْكَ meaning أَخَذْتُ هَذَا مِنْكَ (“have taken this from you”), and in وَهُوَ الَّذِي يَقْبَلُ التَّوْبَةَ عَنْ عِبَادِهِ (الشورى: ٢٥) “And it is He who accepteth the repentance from His servants..." (Q. 42:25, Asad).[607]
c. ‘An in the sense of ‘alá, as in the following poem of Dhū al-Is.ba‘ al-‘Adwānī:
لَاهِ ابْنُ عَمِّكَ لَا أَفْضَلْتَ فَيْ حَسَبٍ * عَنِّي وَلَا أَنْتَ دَيَّاِنْي فَتَخْزُوْنِيْ
“To God be attributed the excellence of the son of thy paternal
uncle, thou hast not become possessed of superiority, on grounds
of pretension to respect (or honour), above me [عَنِّي ], nor art thou
my governor that thou shouldst rule me.”
(Lane's translation).[608]
The only example from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and Al-Suyūt.ī is the following verse: وَمَنْ يَبْخَلْ فَإِنَّمَا يَبْخَلُ عَنْ نَفْسِهِ (محمد: ٣٨) ".... And yet, he who acts niggardly [in God's cause] is but niggardly towards his own self..." (Q. 47:38, Asad).[609] Here ‘an nafsih means ‘alá nafsih.
d. ‘An in the sense of ba‘da (after), as in the expression أَنَا فَاعِلٌ عَلىَ ذَلِكَ عَنْ قَلِيْل meaning أَنَا فَاعِلٌ عَلىَ ذَلِكَ بَعْدَ قَلِيْل ("I shall do that after a while"). [610] An example from the Qur’ān is given by al-Zarkashī and al-Suyūt.ī as follows: يُحَرِّفُونَ الْكَلِمَ عَنْ مَوَاضِعِهِ (المائدة: ١٣) “.... distorting the meaning of the [revealed] words after [knowing] their context..." (Q. 5:13). This interpretation is apparent if we compare it with another similar verse using min ba‘di mawād.i‘ihi instead of ‘an mawād.i‘ihi, namely, Q. 5:41. [611] Al-Qurt.ubī's commentary on this second verse is that the Jews distorted the meaning of the context of the Torah dealing with the stoning of the adulterer after the Prophet had explained to them what Allah meant by this penal law and after they had understood it. Through their interpretation they wanted to change the ruling of stoning for forty lashes. [612] Asad and Pickthall render the same translation of ‘an mawād.i‘ihi and min ba‘di mawād.i‘ihi in the above verses respectively as "out of their context" and "from their context". Ali translates the former as "from their (right) places" and the latter as "from their (right) time". [613]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions other substitutions of particles with ‘an, but without any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a) ‘an in the sense of min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the following poem of Labīd: لِوِرْدٍ تَقْلِصُ الغِيْطانُ عَنْه “for a watering place because of which the fields become diminished." [614] (b)‘an meaning fawqa (above, on), as in the following poem:
لَوْ أَنَّكَ تُلْقِيْ حَنْظَلاً فَوْقَ بَيْضِنَا * تَدَحْرَجَ عَنْ ذَيْ سَامِهِ اْلمُتَقَارِب
“If you threwest colocynths upon our helmets they would roll
along from what is gilded thereof, they being near together.
(Lane’s translation).” [615]
5. فِيْ (in; at; on; near; by; within; during)
a. Fī in the sense of ‘alá as in the expression لاَ يَدْخُلُ اْلخَاتِمُ فِيْ إِصْبِعِيْ meaning لاَ يَدْخُلُ اْلخَاتِمُ عَلىَ إِصْبِعِيْ ("The signet-ring cannnot be inserted into [namely, fit on] my finger"), and in وَلَأُصَلِّبَنَّكُمْ فِي جُذُوعِ النَّخْلِ (طه: ٧١) "And I will assuredly crucify you upon the trunks of palm-trees" (Q. 20:71, Lane) in which fī judhū‘ al-nakhl means ‘alá judhū‘ al-nakhl. [616]
b. Fī in the sense of ilá , as in فَرَدُّوا أَيْدِيَهُمْ فِي أَفْوَاهِهِمْ (إبراهيم: ٩) “And they put their hands to their mouths" (Q. 14:9) in which fī afwāhihim means ‘alá afwāhihim. [617]
c. Fī in the sense of bi, as in the following poem of al-A‘shá: وَإِذَا نُوْشِدَ فِي اْلمَهَارِقِ اْنشَدَا “And if he is requested [to give] the parchments [namely, the books of the prophets] he will respond." Here fī ’l-mahāriq means bi’l-mahāriq. [618] The example from the Qur’ān cited by al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī is as follows: هَلْ يَنْظُرُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ يَأْتِيَهُمُ اللَّهُ فِي ظُلَلٍ مِنَ الْغَمَامِ (البقرة: ٢١٠) “Are they waiting until Allah comes to them with the shadows of the clouds...?" (Q. 2:210) in which fī z.ulal means bi-z.ulal.[619] This is one interpretation. The other interpretation is that there is no substitution of particles in this verse, so that the verse means: "Are they waiting until Allah reveals Himself unto them in the shadows of the clouds?" This is the interpretation adopted by Asad, Pickthall and Ali, [620] which appears to be the more appropriate one.
d. Fī meaning min, as in the following poem of Imru’ al-Qays:
وَهَلْ يَنْعَمَنْ مَنْ كَانَ آخِرُ عَهْدِهِ * ثَلاثيِنَْ شَهْراً في ثَلاثةِ أَحْوالِ
“Can anyone [i.e., the former inhabitant of the consumed (effaced)
ruins] be happy whose most recent time [in happiness] was
thirty months in [i.e., from] the last three years [i.e., the
impossibility of happiness after seperation]?”
Here fī thalāthati ah.wāl means min thalāthati ah.wāl. [621] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: وَيَوْمَ نَبْعَثُ فِي كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ شَهِيدًا عَلَيْهِمْ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ (النحل: ٨٩) "One day We shall raise from all peoples a witness against them from amongst themselves..." (Q. 16:89, Ali)[622] in which fī kulli ummah means min kulli ummah.
e. Fī meaning ma‘a, as in the expression فُلانٌ عَاقِلٌ فِيْ حِلْم meaning فُلانٌ عَاقِلٌ مَعَ حِلْم ("So-and-so is intelligent as well as gentle").[623] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فِي تِسْعِ آَيَاتٍ إِلَى فِرْعَوْنَ وَقَوْمِهِ (النمل: ١٢) ".... [And thou shalt go] with nine [of My] messages unto Pharaoh and his people..." (Q. 27:12, Asad).[624] Asad's interpretation of āyāt as "messages" is based on the opinion of some unidentified commentators who "see in it a reference to nine specific commandments or ethical principles...".[625] Others render āyāt as "signs", the miracles performed by Prophet Moses. Therefore, the verse means, according to this view, that the radiant hand, as mentioned in the previous verse, is one in addition to nine other miracles. However, according to other commentators fī means min ("among") rather than ma‘a in this verse, so that the two miracles mentioned earlier, namely, the radiant hand and the staff, are included in the nine miracles. This is the view of al-Nah.h.ās, al-Mahdāwī, al-Qushayrī, and Ibn Kathīr, and on which Pickthall and Ali render their translations.[626]
Al-Zarkashī mentions other meanings of fī, among which are as follows:
a. عِنْدَ (at, with), as in قَالَ أَلَمْ نُرَبِّكَ فِينَا وَلِيدًا وَلَبِثْتَ فِينَا مِنْ عُمُرِكَ سِنِينَ (الشعراء: ١٨) “Pharaoh said: ‘Did we not bring thee up among us when thou wert a child? And didst thou not spend among us years of thy [later] life?’” (Q. 26:18, Asad). Here فِيْنَا means عِنْدَنَا.
b. بَعْـَد (after), as in وَفِصَالُهُ فِي عَامَيْنِ (لقمان: ١٤) “… and his weaning is after two years” (Q. 31:14), namely, the baby stops his total dependance on his mother’s milk after two years. Here fī ‘āmayn means ba‘da ‘āmayn.
c. عَـْن ( about, from), as in وَمَنْ كَانَ فِي هَذِهِ أَعْمَى فَهُوَ فِي الْآَخِرَةِ أَعْمَى (الإسراء: ٧٢) “Amd whoever is blind in these [namely, Allah’s blessings in this mentioned mentioned earlier], he will also become blind about [His blessings in] the Hereafter, [because of his disbelief in them]...” (Q. 17:72). [627] However, translators like Ali and Pickthall, translate فِي in the above verse in its original sense in their respective translations, as follows: “But those who are blind in this world, will be blind in the Hereafter…”, and “for whoever is blind [of heart] in this [world] will be blind in the life to come [as well]…”[628]
6. لِ (for)
a. Li in the sense of ‘alá, as in the expression سَقَطَ فُلَانٌ لِفِيْهِ meaning سَقَطَ فُلَانٌ عَلَى فِيْهِ ("So-and-so fell upon his mouth"), and in وَلَا تَجْهَرُوا لَهُ بِالْقَوْلِ كَجَهْرِ بَعْضِكُمْ لِبَعْضٍ (الحجرات: ٢) "... and neither speak loudly to him, as you would speak loudly to one another, ..." (Q. 49:2, Asad) in which lahu means ‘alayh.[629]
b. Li in the sense of ilá , as in the expression هَدَيْتُ لَهُ ("I guided him to it").[630] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: بِأَنَّ رَبَّكَ أَوْحَى لَهَا (الزلزلة: ٥) “as thy Sustainer will have inspired her to do." (Q. 99:5, Asad) in which awh.á lahā means awh.á ilayhā.[631]
c. Li meaning min ajli, as in the expression فَعَلْتُ ذَاكَ لَكَ ("I did that for you") meaning فَعَلْتُ ذَاكَ مِنْ أَجْلِكَ ("I did that for your sake"). [632] Ibn al-Jawzī mentions lām al-sabab in the following verse: إِنَّمَا نُطْعِمُكُمْ لِوَجْهِ اللَّهِ (الدهر: ٩) “(Saying): We feed you, for the sake of Allah only." (Q. 76:9, Pickthall) which is probably one example from the Qur’ān. Another probable example from the Qur’ān [633]is as follows: يَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي قَدَّمْتُ لِحَيَاتِي (الفجر: ٢٤) "He will say: Ah, would that I had provided beforehand for my life [to come]." (Q. 89:24, Asad) in which lih.ayātī means min ajli h.ayātī fī ’l-ākhirah ("for the sake of my life in the Hereafter") according to one interpretation; however, according to another, such as that of al-Zarkashī, it means fī h.ayātī ("in my life"). [634]
There are two more substitutions mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah solely in his work Adab al-Kātib and without any example from the Qur’ān, most probably because they occur only in Arabic literature and poetry, as follows:
(a) Li meaning ma‘a, as in the following poem of Mutammim ibn Nuwayrah al-Yarbū‘ī:
فَلَمَّا تَفَرَّقْنَا كَأَنِّي ومالِكاً * لِطُولِ اجْتِمَاعٍ لم نَبِتْ لَيْلَةً مَعَا
“When we separated it was as if Mālik and I did not stay
the night together in spite of the length of the meeting.”
(b) Li meaning ba‘da (after), as in the poem of al-Rā‘ī, as follows:
حتَّى وَرَدْنَ لِتمِّ خِمْسٍ بَائِصٍ * جُدًّا تَعَاوَرُهُ الرِّياحُ وَبِيْلاَ
“Until they [namely, the sheep], after completing five distant [pastures], reached a frontier seized with severe wind successively.”
Here litimmi khimsin means ba‘da tamāmi khimsin. [635]
The example from the Qur’an is given by al-Zarkashī as follows: أَقِمِ الصَّلَاةَ لِدُلُوكِ الشَّمْسِ (الإسراء: ٧٨) “Establish [your] prayer after the sun’s decline …” (Q. 17:78).[636]
7. مِنْ (from)
a. Min in the sense of ‘alá, as in وَنَصَرْنَاهُ مِنَ الْقَوْمِ الَّذِينَ كَذَّبُوا بِآَيَاتِنَا (الأنبياء: ٧٧) “And [We] delivered him from the people who denied Our revelations..." (Q.21:77, Pickthall) in which min al-qawm means ‘alá ’l-qawm. [637]
b. Min in the sense of ‘an, as in the expression حَدَّثَنِيْ فُلانٌ مِنْ فُلاَن meaning حَدَّثَنِيْ فُلانٌ عَنْ فُلان ("So and so related to me from so and so").[638] Although no example is given by Ibn Qutaybah from the Qur’ān, al-Zakrkashī and al-Suyūt.ī cite the following verse as an example: قَدْ كُنَّا فِي غَفْلَةٍ مِنْ هَذَا (الأنبياء: ٩٧) ".... We were indeed heedless of this [promise of resurrection]!..." (Q. 21:97, Asad) in which min hādhā means ‘an hādhā . [639]
c. Min in the sense of bi, as in لَهُ مُعَقِّبَاتٌ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِ يَحْفَظُونَهُ مِنْ أَمْرِ الله (الرعد : : ١١) “For him are angels ranged before him and behind him, who guard him by Allah's command" (Q. 13:11, Pickthall) in which min amr Allāh means bi-amr Allāh. [640] There are four views concerning the person who is guarded in this verse: every human being, the Prophet, and every prophet. They are all protected till Allah's decree is imposed on them. The other view is that the protectors in the verse are not guardian angels, and the protected person is every ruler who is surrounded by his bodyguards but cannot protect him from Allah's decree. This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Ikrimah as quoted by al-Qurt.ubī.[641]
d. Min in the sense of fī, as in أَرُونِي مَاذَا خَلَقُوا مِنَ الْأَرْضِ (فاطر: ٤٠) ".... Show me what it is that they have created on earth..." (Q. 35:40, Asad) in which min al-ard. means fī ’l-ard.. [642]
We have seen that in this section Ibn Qutaybah discussed the substitution of particles with others very briefly and incompletely. For example, in his work Ta‘wīl he mentions only one particle that is substituted by fī, namely, ‘alá whereas in his Adab al-Kātib he mentioned five particles that are substituted by fī, including ‘alá and ilá. However, he does not give any example from the Qur’ān for the other three particles, as others did in their works. This number is still small compared to that of al-Dāmaghānī, who mentions eight, and Ibn al-Jawzī as well as al-Suyūt.ī who mentioned ten particles in their works.
ENDNOTES TO CHAPTER IV
1. Ibn Qutaybah’s Ta’wīl, pp. 299-300 and al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, p. 228.
2. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 156.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibn Qutaybah., Ta’wīl, p. 301; and al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, p. 229.
5. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 301.
6. Ibid., p. 302.
7. Ibid. For further details and other interpretations, see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 16, pp. 32-35.
8. Ibid., p. 309.
9. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 155.
10. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 299.
11. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 502
12. Al-Qurt.ubī al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 156.
13. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 309; Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 61.
14. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 114, 117 and 118, and Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 61.
15. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 154.
16. Ibid.
17. For further details, see Dr. Mus.t.afá Zayd, Dirāsāt fī ’l-Tafsīr, pp. 49-50.
18. See Theodor Noldeke and Friedrich Schwally, Geschichte des Qorans i-ii (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1961), vol. 2, p. 72.
19. See Morris Seale, Qur’ān and Bible (London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1978), pp 34-35.
20. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 268 and 171; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 1, p. 195.
21. James A. Bellamy, "The Mysterious Letters of the Koran: Old Abbreviations of the Basmalah", JAOS xciii (1973), pp. 277-278.
22. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 267-268.
23. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 1, p. 195.
24. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 32-33. This is also the interpretation of ‘Ikrimah, see Noldeke, Geschichte, vol. 2, p. 73.
25. See W. Montgomery Watt, Bell's Introduction to the Qur’ān (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970), pp. 61-65. For further studies on Western scholars' points of view on this subject, see A. Jeffery, "The Mystic Letters of the Koran", MW xiv (1924), pp. 247-260; Alan Jones, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qur’ān", SI 16 (1962), pp. 5-11; and R. Marston Speight, "The Opening Verses of the Chapters of the Qur’ān", MW 59/3-4 (1969), pp. 205-209. Among Muslim writers on this subject are al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, pp. 225-236; Dr. Hāshim Amir ‘Ali, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qur’ān", IC 36 (Jan. 1962), pp. iii-iv; and ‘Alī Nas.ūh. al-T.āhir, "Abbreviations in the Holy Qur’ān", IR (Dec. 1950), pp. 8-12.
26. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 394-5; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 461.
27. For further details, see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 46-48 (al-Rād.i's introduction) and pp. 83-84.
28. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 122.
29. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 8, p. 2989 (supplement)
30. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 187.
31. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; ibid., Tafsīr, p. 253; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 374; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 764; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 506.
32. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 409.
33. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf: Tafsīr al-Qur’ān mimā ’shtabahat Asmā’uh wa Tas.arrafat Ma‘ānīh, presented and edited by Hind Shalabī (Tunis: al-Sharikah al-Tūnīsiyyah lil-Tawzī‘ ,1979), p. 340.
34. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 37.
35. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 116; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 506; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 399; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 27; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 129; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 173 and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 340.
36. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406.
37. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 7. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and Ibn al-Jawzī use the term khalq (creation) for the meaning of qad.á in the above verse, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 343 and Nuzhah, pp. 508-509. According to al-Farrā’, the term qad.á in the above verse means "He created and controlled them (khalaqahunna wa h.akamahunna), see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 13. As another example, Ibn Qutaybah cites Q. 41:12, and as a shāhid, he cites the poem of Abū Dhu’ayb where qad.á means "to make", as follows وَعَلَيْهِمَا مَسْرُوْدَتَانِ قَضَا هُمَا * دَاؤُدُ أَوْ صُنَّعُ السَّوَابِغِ تُبَّع "With both of them two coats of mail made by David or [i.e., and] the perfect expert (blacksmith) Tubba‘." See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 441-442 and idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, pp. 17-18; see also [al-Mufad.d.al al-D.abbī], al-Mufad.d.alīyāt, p. 881. This poem is also cited by Ibn Fāris as a shāhid to indicate that the term qad.á in the verse in question means "He decided their creation" (أَحْكَمَ خَلْقَهُنَّّ); see Maqāyis vol. 5, p. 99. Tubba‘ was the title of the kings of Yemen, like the Pharaohs of Egypt, and the Caesars of the Roman empire. Tubba‘ did not make the coats of mail by himself, but by his blacksmiths who were experts in this profession. See also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 186; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 87. Al-Suyūt.ī cites Q. 80:23 as an example of qad.á meaning "to do", see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 129.
38. According to Ibn Qutaybah qad.á nah.bahu means qutila (he was killed), since the verse in question deals with martyrs; see Ta’wīl, p. 183; and idem, Tafsīr, p. 349. For further details, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, pp. 158-160.
39. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 443; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 628; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 474; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 297; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 124. According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, this is the meaning given by Qatādah, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 100.
40. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 304; ‘Ikrimah says that Moses was to choose one of four roads before him; when he made his choice and chose the correct one, he said the verse mentioned above; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 247.
41. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 443; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 297; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 626; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241.
42. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, pp. 8-9.
43. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, 443; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 473; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 627; idem, Qurrah, p. 242; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 298; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, p. 103; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
44. See Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 278.
45. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 475-476; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 629; and idem, Qurrah, p. 244.
46. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; idem, Tafsīr, p. 279; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 13; and al-Farrā’, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 181.
47. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 299 and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
48. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 13; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 103.
49. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 103; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 474; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 256; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 299; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 629.
50. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444. This is also the view of al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī, Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Zarkashī, and al-Suyūt.ī; see Qāmūs, p. 475; Wujūh, p. 299; Nuzhah, p. 629; al-Burhān, vol. 1, p. 104; and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
51. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 625-30; idem, Qurrah, pp. 241-244; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 96-123; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 102-104; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 122-124; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, pp. 307-8; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 295-300; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 473-476; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 443-444.
52. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 72; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 143; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 306-307; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 134; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 29; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 3, pp. 30-33; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 257; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
53. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, pp. 99 and 313; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 47; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 28; al-Zamakshsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 660; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144.
54.Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, pp. 202 and 218.
55. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, 238.
56. Ibn Qutaybh, Ta’wīl, p. 445.
57. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 49.
58. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 29
59.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43.
60. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, p. 201; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 313; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 660. See also Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 136; Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, p. 218; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 103..
61. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 51
62. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 30; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 152. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term ummah meaning imām in this verse is the language of the Quraysh, see Gharīb al Qur’ān, p. 53.
63. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al Qur’ān, p. 53.
64. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23. Here Ibn al-Jawzī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 144. Al-Qurt.ubī says that the ummah is the person who combines good things in himself (اْلأُمَّةُ الرَّجُلُ الجَامِع لِلْخَيْر), see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 10, p. 197.E
65. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; idem, Tafsīr, p. 249; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 755; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 391; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 114.
66.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 612.
67. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
68. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; idem, Tafsīr, p. 108; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 165. Al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, and Tiflīsī mention neither this verse nor any other in which the word ummah means a group of ‘ulamā’.
69. Al-Zamakshsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 224; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 483.
70. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; idem, Tafsīr, p. 397; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 136.
71. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, 203
72. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 30.
73. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1324.
74. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 90.
75. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 446 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
76. Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 28.
77. Lane, Lexicon, pt. p. 90.
78. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 143; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 129.
79 . See Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 151; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4. 109. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 257 and vol. 4, p. 136.
80. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 447; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 312.
81.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209
82.Al-Suyūt.ī Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 628.
83. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 448; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 336-337. Ibn ‘Abbās says that the term ‘ahd includes a promise; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 382.
84. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 447; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 15, p. 47. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of the said verse is as follows: "Have I not commanded you (أَلَمْ آمُرْكَ) through the tongues of prophets and messengers in the revealed books not to worship Satan...?"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, 430.
85. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 337. No Qur’ānic verse was given as an example by Ibn Qutaybah. For the h.adīth, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 312.
86. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447. Again, no Qur’ānic verse was given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example here.
87. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 448 and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209.
88. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 201 and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 448. For further details on the meanings of of ‘ahd see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 2182-2183 (s.v. عهد).
89. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 449; Sufyān al-Thawrī, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-Karīm, ed. and annot. Imtiyāz ‘Alī ‘Arshī, 1st ed. (Rampur: Hindustan Printing Works, 1385/1965), p. 81; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
90. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 20.
91. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75.
92. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 47.
93.Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 394-395.
94.Ibn Qutaybah, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, p. 532
95.Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
96.Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 109.
97. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 449 and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
98.Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 395.
99. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 450; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz, vol. 1, p. 253; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 395. Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī mentions "pact" as well as "kinship" as the meaning of ill in the above Qur’ānic verse; see al-Mufradāt, p. 20.
100. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 530.
101. See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, pp. 73-74
102. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p. 171; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 31.
103. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 342.
104. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 484; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 73; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566. According to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī the term qunūt in this h.adīth means "keeping oneself busy with worship and avoiding any other activity" (اْلإشْتِغَالُ بِاْلعِبَادَةِ وَرَفْضُ مَا سِوَاه), see al-Mufradāt, p. 413. The h.adīth was reported by Muslim, al-Nasā’ī, Ibn Mājah, al-Tirmidhī and Ah.mad on the authority of Jābir ibn ‘Abd Allāh; see Wensinck, al-Mu‘jam, vol. 5, p. 473 (s.v. قنط); it was also reported by al-Bayhaqī, see al-Sunan al-Kubrá, vol. 3, p. 8.
105. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451; idem, Tafsīr, p. 382; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241.
106. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 51.
107. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451.
108. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; Abū al-H.usayn Sa‘īd Hibat Allāh al-Rāwandī, Fiqh al-Qur’ān, ed. al-Sayyid Ah.mad al-H.usaynī, 2 vols. (Qumm: al-Mat.ba‘ah al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1397 A.H.), vol. 1, p. 100; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 31; Lane translated the above verse as follows: "And stand ye unto God, in the divinely-appointed act of prayer, refraining from talking"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566.
109.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 163.
110.Al- Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 391; Ibn al-Jawzī , Nuzhah, p. 483; and al-Suyūt.ī, Asbāb al-Nuzūl (Cairo: Dār al-Tah.rīr lil-T.ab‘ wa ’l-Nashr, 1382 A.H.), p. 33.
111. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; idem, Tafsīr, p. 340; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 147; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 391; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241. According to Ibn ‘Abbās and Abū ‘Ubaydah the term قَانِتُوْن in the said verse means مُطِيْعُوْن (obedient); see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 302; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 121.
112. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 452; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 147. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 484; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566.
113.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 358.
114.Al-Suyūt.ī Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 173.
115. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 23; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 9; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 24; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115
116. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 169 (s.v. دين).
117. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453.
118.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 234; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 513 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 286.
119. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 453-454; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 255; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 116. Al-Zamakhshsarī, however, mentions "the religion of Islam which is the truth" as the meaning of dīn al-h.aqq in the above verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 537.
120. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 454 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101. According to Ibn al-Jawzī, dīn here means "number" (‘adad); see Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115. Both Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī mention al-h.isāb as one of the meanings of the dīn, with different examples; the former with Q. 24:25, and the latter with Q. 83:11; see Nuzhah, p. 297; idem, Qurrah, p. 115; and Qāmūs, p. 178.
121. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 541.
122. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 943.
123. Beside millah, al-Dāmaghānī mentions also الدِّيْنُ بِعَيْنِهِ as another meaning of dīn; Qāmūs, pp. 178-179; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; idem, Qurrah, p. 116; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 102; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 102; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 1625; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 523. Al-Qurt.ubī mentions t.ā‘ah and millah as the meaning of dīn on the said verse, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 43.
124. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 498. Abū ‘Ubaydah's and al-Tabarsi's interpretation of mawālīkum in the said verse is "your paternal cousins" and "associate (allies)"; Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 134; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 337.
125. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 498; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 408. This is the meaning of mawālī in this verse in the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn ‘Abbās, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 43; and Abū ‘Ubayd al-Qāsim ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il al-Wāridah fī ’l-Qur’ān al-Karīm: Riwāyah ‘an al-S.ah.ābī ’l-Jalīl Ibn ‘Abbās Rad.iya ’llāh ‘anh. Edited, commented, and annotated by Dr. ‘Abd al-H.amīd al-Sayyid T.alab (Kuwayt: Mat.bū‘āt Jāmi‘at al-Kuwayt, 1985), p. 82.
126. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 1; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 47; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278.
127. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 46. The h.adīth was reported by al-Dārimī and Abū Dā’ūd, al-Tirmidhī, Ibn Mājah and Ah.mad ibn H.anbal; see Wensinck, al-Mu‘jam, vol. 1, p. 190 (s.v. بطل); it was also reported by al-Bayhaqī, see al-Sunan al-Kubrá, vol. 7, p. 138.
128. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 215; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1365; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 100.
129.Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 497; and al-Dāmaghānī, Wujūh, p. 278.
130. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1343; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 67. However, according to al-Dāmaghānī and al-Tiflīsī, mawlá in this verse means "a relative among the disbelievers", see Qāmūs, p. 497, and Wujūh, p. 278.
131. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 456; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 49; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 409.
132. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 455-456.
133. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 335.
134.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 338.
135. For further details of the term mawlá, see al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 496-498; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 46-50; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 265.
136. Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 390.
137. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409 and idem, Qurrah, p. 164.
138. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1796.
139.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 196-197. See also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1616; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 506.
140. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 347; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 82; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 184; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 182; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 398; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 393; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 293; al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 183; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, p. 166. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 343; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1797.
141. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 45; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 408. Ibn al-Jawzī mentions also Q. 18:104 as an example, while al-Dāmaghānī mentions Q. 47:1 and 8, and Q. 18:104; see Qurrah, p. 166; and Qāmūs, p. 293.
142. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 131; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 331; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 466; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1112; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 328; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 392.
143. The example of d.alāl meaning jahl but nisyān according to Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 26:20. The example of d.alāl meaning khusrān is Q. 36:24 and 40:25; see Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 181-182; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 407-409; idem, Qurrah, pp. 165-166; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 292.
144. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 102; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 201. See also Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126, and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
145. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459 and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126. According to Ibn Kathīr this is the view of Abū al-‘Āliyah, al-H.asan and al-D.ah.h.āk, see Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 574.
146. Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, also mentions another interpretation, namely "the book", as mentioned earlier; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 386. Lane also mentions the four interpretations above; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
147. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 430; see also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 778.
148. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 148; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī simply interpret imām as lawh. (tablet), whereas Abū ‘Ubaydah interprets it as kitāb (a book); see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1184; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 418; and Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 158.
149. See Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 149; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 343; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 91; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr vol. 2, p. 576; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 724. See also al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126 and idem, Qurrah, p. 50.
150.Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 52; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 158, n.1.
151. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 354. For more details on the meanings of imām, see Ibn Manz.ūr, vol. 12, pp. 24-26; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
152. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 460; idem, Tafsīr, p. 192; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 237; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p, 167; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 268; Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 80; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 562; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 67; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, pp. 160-161; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 125; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, pp. 464-465; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 285. According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, the meaning of صَلاة in the above verse is اْلإسْتِغْفَار (asking forgiveness), see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 166.
153. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 460; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721.
154. Al- Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, 125
155. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 28; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 394-395; and idem, Qurrah, p. 161.
156. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1635.
157. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 173.
158. Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, p. 465. For further details, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721. If s.alāh here means istighfār, in other verses of the Qur’ān, the term istighfār means s.alāh (prayer), as in Q. 3:17, 8:33, and 51:18, see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 90; and idem, Qurrah, p. 30; see also al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 341.
159. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 461; idem, Tafsīr, p. 208; Tiflīsū, Wujūh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 125. Ibn Qutaybah mentions also the other meaning of s.alāh in the above verse, namely, "reading" which is the view of al-A‘mash; see Ta’wīl, p. 461; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 62; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, p. 87.
160. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 188.
161. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 626.
162.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 525 and idem, Qurrah, p. 205.
163. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462.
164.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 247; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 400.
165. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p.255; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 514-515; and idem, Qurrah, p. 206.
166.Al- T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 255.
167.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1462.
168. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 247; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 515; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 699. .
169.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 265.
170. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 352; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 248. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 3:53 and Q. 7:156
171. Al-Zamakhsharī, al- Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1462 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 255.
172. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 160; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 38.
173. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 463; see also Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 248.
174. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178.
175. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wil, p. 463.
176. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178.
177. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 424.
178. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 458.
179. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1825.
180. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 490; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 813; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 413. Al-Dāmaghānī suggests "the stopping places of the roads" (مَنَازِلُ الطُّرُق) , whereas Tiflīsī states that it is "the roads and the stopping places of the land" (الْطُرُقُ وَمَنَازِلُ الأرْض ) for the meaning of sabab in the above verse; see Qāmūs, p. 225, and Wujūh, p. 126.
181. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 225; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 126; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 247 ("places of ascent and roads" rather than "doors" in p. 113); "their roads and doors", according to al-Zamakhsharī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1280; "their places of ascent" (marāqīhā) or "their regions" (نَوَاحِيْهَا), see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 458.
182. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 524.
183. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1285.
184. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; instead of wa law nāla it is written wa in yurqá in Zuhayr's Dīwān, see Zuhayr ibn Abī Sulmá, Dīwān (Beirut: Dār Bayrūt lil-T.ibā‘ah wa ’l-Nashr, 1406/1986), p. 87. For the meanings of sabab see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 257.
185. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 67.
186.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 223.
187. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 116.
188.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 159.
189.Al- T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 482.
190. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 464-465; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 67. H.abl min Allāh according to al-Dāmaghānī means "the religion of Islam", see Qāmūs, p. 116. According Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, al-H.asan, Qatādah and Abū ‘Ubaydah h.abl in this verse means ‘ahd (covenant); see al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 1, p. 311; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 488; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 101. According to al-Zamakhsharī the term h.abl in the said verse means dhimmah (covenant of protection); see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 227.
191. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 465; al-A‘shá, Dīwān, p. 151; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 101; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 135; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 158.
192. See al-Murs.ifī, Raghbat al-Āmil ([Cairo]: al-Nahd.ah, 1348/[1929]), vol. 4, p. 52, with the commentary of Mah.mūd Muh.ammad Shākir, quoted by al-Sayyid A. S.aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 465, n. 2; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 135.
193. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 467; idem, Tafsīr, pp. 28-9; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 426; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 373.
194. Ibn al-Jawzī, however, gives many examples, among which are: Q. 2:35, 3:57, and 4:10; see Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 173.
195. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 467; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 215; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 308; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 195; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 427; idem, Qurrah, p. 173; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 316.
196. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 327.
197.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 413
198. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 467-468; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 216; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 402; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 87; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 800; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 468; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 309; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 316; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1920 (s.v. ظلم); Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 2:57, 19:60 and 36:54.
199. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 468; idem, Tafsīr, p. 165; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 196; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 428; idem, Qurrah, p. 174; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 399. Al-Zamakhsharī interprets yaz.limūn in this verse as يُكَذِّبُوْنَ بِهَا ظُلْمًا ("they wrongly deny it"), see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 439.
200. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 310; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 196-197; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 428; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174.
201.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p.; 503.
202. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 469-470. This explanation of Ibn Qutaybah is quoted by Ibn al-Jawzī, see Nuzhah, p. 189 and idem, Qurrah, p. 71.
203.Al-Murtad.á, Amālī, vol. 4, p. 24.
204. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 469; idem, Tafsīr, p. 373; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 77; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49.
205. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 469; Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 217; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49. The above verse, however, is treated by Ibn Qutaybah as an example for the term balā’ meaning "a test", see Ta’wīl, p. 469. The other example given by Tiflīsī is Q. 7:168. Al-Suyūt.ī uses the term makrūh instead of al-sharr for the meaning of fitnah in the above verse, see Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 261.
206. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 370; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 217; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 69; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 77; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49. This meaning is also advanced by Al-Suyūt.ī on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās in the above verse, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 6 and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 620.
207. Al-Zamakhsharī , al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 75; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 105-106.
208. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 469; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 191; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 313; idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 5, p. 352.
209. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 38 and ibid., n. 1; see also Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 47 and ibid., n. 1.
210. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; idem, Tafsīr, p. 177; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al- Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī and Tiflīsī give here وَسْوَسَةُ الشَّيْطَان (Satan's temptation) instead of كَيْدُ الشَّيْطَان as the meaning of رِجْزُ الشَّيْطَان, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 504, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 526, and Wujūh, p. 110. Ibn Kathīr mentions "temptation" (وَسْوَسَة ) and "evil idea" (خَاِطٌر سَيِّء) as the meaning of rijz in the verse in queston; see Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 304. Yah.yá ibn Sallām mentions وَسَاوِس (pl. of وَسْوَسَة) only, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 321.
211.Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 46; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 112, n. 1.
212. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 321; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110. Al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī use here the term al-s.anam (the idol, the image) instead of al-awthān, see Qāmūs, 191, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyūt.ī puts it in plural, namely al-as.nām (the idols), see Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137, as well as in singular, see Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 563.
213. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, pp. 200-201. Another interpretation is that of al-Jubbā’ī, namely, "avoid bad deeds and blameworthy character", whereas an unidentified commentator who is probably of s.ūfī leaning says that the verse means "take out the love of the world from your heart because it is the head of every sin". See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 385.
214. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; idem, Tafsīr, p. 495; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1546.
215. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 6, pp. 94-96.
216. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137. See also al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 84; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 572. According to Ibn Kathīr the meaning of rijs in the above verse is "doubt"; see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 417.
217. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 320; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 478-479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī call it al-ibtilā’ (trial) instead of al-ikhtibār, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 180, Qāmūs, p. 348 and Wujūh, p. 216. Both al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī use the term al-imtih.ān (test) for the interpretation of the term fitnah in the above verse.
218. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah.yá ibn Sallām uses the term عَذَاب (punishment), whereas Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-T.abarsī use the term أَذىً (offense) and أَذِيَّة (pl. of أَذىً) as the meaning of fitnah in the above verse. See al-Tas.ārīf, p. 18, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 114 and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 274.
219. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1595; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, 348; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217. Al-Suyūt.ī mentions a different example, namely, يَوْمَ هُمْ عَلَى النَّارِ يُفْتَنُونَ (الذاريات: ١٣) “(It is) the day when they will be tormented at the Fire, ..." (Q. 51:13, Pickthall); see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. This example is also given by Yah.yá ibn Sallām, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 181
220. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 468 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2335.
221. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 529.
222. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; others mention al-s.add only, see Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 349; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
223. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 168; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 363.
224. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; others use the term al-shirk rather than al-ishrāk; see Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 179; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 347-348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, pp. 192-193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
225. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 287.
226. See Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 233.
227. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 68; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2336. For further details on this verse, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 132.
228. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī respectively interpret fitnah here as mih.nah (severe trial, affliction) and "an affliction (balīyah) which appears in their hearts, such as hypocrisy"; however, T.abarsī gives also another interpretation, namely, "punishment in this world". See al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 964; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 158. According to Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī the term fitnah in this verse means ‘uqūbah (punishment), see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480 and idem, Qurrah, p. 195; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Al-Suyūt.ī does not include kufr as one of the fifteen meanings of fitnah in his al-Itqān. Al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī cite Q. 3:7 as the example from the Qur’ān in which fitnah means kufr, but according to al-Suyūt.īit means al-id.lāl (misleading), see al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126.
229. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 261; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127 (in idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169 it is written al-d.alālah which is a misprint and should be al-ithm); al-Dāmaghānī suggests kufr, whereas al-T.abarsī suggests الْعِصْيَانُ وَ اْلكُفْر as the meaning of fitnah in this verse, see, Qāmūs, p. 348 and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 37.
230. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 473-474; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 218; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. According to al-Dāmaghānī, the term fitnah in this verse means fitnah itself, namely, temptation.
231. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 474.
232.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 370.
233.Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 150; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 595; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 128; and Ibn Manz.ūr Lisān, vol. 13, p. 317.
234. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, p. 402.
235. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 179-182; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 348-9; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 216-218; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 479-480; Qurrah, pp. 193-194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 126-127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
236. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1139; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; al-Dāmaghānī. Qāmūs, p. 355. Ibn al-Jawzī uses the term al-ilzam (duty, obligation) as the meaning of al-fard. in the above verse, see Nuzhah, p. 468. Ibn Qutaybah includes in this category of meaning the following verse: فَرِيضَةً مِنَ اللَّهِ (النساء: ١١ ) “.... It is an injunction from Allah..." (Q. 4:11, Pickthall), whereas according to al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī, the term farīd.ah here means farīd.ah itself, namely, religious duty. See Ta’wīl, p. 475; Qāmūs, 356; and Wujūh, p. 221.
237. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 355; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2373.
238. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 271
239. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 158; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 244; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 376.
240. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 63; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 124; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 7, p. 302 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, pp. 2373-2374.
241. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 475-476; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 189; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 112; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 356; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 221; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468. The term farad.a in the verse could also mean the injunction to follow the contents of the Qur’ān, see Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 476; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1068; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 269; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 376.
242. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 476; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 355; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation on this verse is that Allah allowed or enjoined the Prophet to marry the divorced wife of his adopted son; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 361. A similar view is that of al-Zamakhsharī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1133.
243. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 477; and idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 35.
244. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 94; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 282.
245. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 477-478; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 178; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 414; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 553; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 93-4; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 167; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 282.
246. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 478; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 177; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 93; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 281-282.
247. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 536.
248. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 245; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 136; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1414.
249. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 313.
250. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 95.
251. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 245.
252. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 138. For further details, see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 234-235.
253. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 244.
254. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 303; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 488; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 645; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 218. It is also the interpretation given by Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn Fāris, see Wujūh, p. 41; Qāmūs, p. 47; and Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 135.
255. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 108; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 41; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 47.
256. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1486; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 291.
257. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 108-109.
258. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 481-482, and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 47-48.
259.For further details, see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, pp. 512-513; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 680; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 268.
260. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 338; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 290; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 180-1. Ibn al-Jawzī makes the distinction between d.urr and d.arr; the former is used for misfortune, the latter for the opposite of benefit as in the above example; see Nuzhah, p. 403.
261. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179. It includes sickness according to al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 397; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 281.
262. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483. Al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 6:42 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 289; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404. Like in the previous verse, al-T.abarsī and Ibn Kathīr interprets d.arrā’ in this verse as shiddah and balā’, including drought; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 101. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr. vol. 2, p. 427. Pickthall translates it as "adversity".
263. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 427; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404.
264. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404.
265. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī mention Q. 3:144 and 4:113 as examples, see Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 405.
266. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 290; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 404-405.
267. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 674; and al-T.abarsī Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 260.
268. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 69; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 233.
269. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 124; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
270. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qurān, p. 57; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 90.
271. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol.2, p. 395; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 437; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 123; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
272. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 209.
273. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 45; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, pp. 98 and 101.
274. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 210.
275. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 155; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 124; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
276. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 485; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 462.
277. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 213; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 322; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
278. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 486; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 782-783; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 437. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 65.
279. See M. Asad, The Message, p. 432, n. 101.
280. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 486; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 284; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 360; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 304; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 454; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1180; al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 2:253 which is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Qāmūs, p. 212; and Ta’wīl, p. 486.
281. Ibn Qutaybah cites also Q. 17:85 as an example, see Ta’wīl, p. 486; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 496-497; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132.
282.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, pp. 186-187; see also al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 30, pp. 15-16; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 427; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1573; and M. Asad, The Message, p. 924.
283.Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
284. See Carlile H. Macartney, ed., Dīwān Shi‘r Dhī ’l-Rummah (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1919), p. 176; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 460; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 205.
285. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133.
286. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 892; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 62.
287. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487.
288. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1274, Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212. Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 16:2 as the example of rūh. meaning wah.y; see Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132.
289. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 6; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 517.
290. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
291. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 255.
292. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 488; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 253; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 131; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 323-324; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
293.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1337.
294. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 228.
295. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, al-Mu‘tarak, vol.2, p. 122.
296.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 145.
297. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127.
298. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487.
299. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 16, p. 54. According to al-T.abarsī, Qatādah's and al-Suddī's interpretation of rūh. in this verse is respectively the Qur’ān and the Holy Spirit (Gabriel), see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 37.
300. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489;
301.Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 379.
302.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, pp. 85-86.
303. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 621; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237.
304. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 119; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; idem, Qurrah, p. 237; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 505; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 380; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 305-306. This is the view of Qatādah, al-Kalbī and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujāhid and ‘Ikrimah, that the term awh.á in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll", see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, p. 85.
305.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, p. 85.
306.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489.
307. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 325; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 263; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237.
308.Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 516.
309.Abū Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 182; and al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 390.
310. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 26; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238.
311. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 490; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 423; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 515; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238.
312. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 385.
313.Ibn Kathir, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 577.
314.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 490; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238. It is noteworthy that Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī, give us respectively seven and ten meanings of the term wah.y.
315. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 526; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 283.
316. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 491; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 244; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 353.
317. Ibn Qutaybah Ta’wīl, p. 491; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 243; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 109; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 219-220; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361.
318. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 491; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 410; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 266; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 219; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 352-353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361.
319.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 410.
320. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 250; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 580; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186.
321.Al-Zamakhsharī al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1268.
322. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 250; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 463; idem, Qurrah, p. 186; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347. "Conquest and victory over the enemies (فَتْحٌ وَظَفَرٌعَـلىَ اْلأعْدَاء) " is the meaning of the above verse according to al-T.abarsī's interpretation, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 127.
323. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 249; Tiflīsī, Wujūh. p. 215; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186.
324.Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 149; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 546; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 390.
325.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347.
326. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494; Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention h.asan (good) as the translation of the term karīm in the above verse, see Wujūh, p. 250; and Qāmūs, p. 403.
327. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 38. This is also the interpretation rendered by Ibn al-Jawzī, see Nuzhah, p. 522.
328. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494, and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 522.
29.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 224.
330. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250. Here Ibn al-Jawzī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 522;
331. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 495; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 522; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250.
332. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250, and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 403.
333. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 284; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 610. Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī cite Q. 14:24 as the example of the term mathal meaning shabah. See Qurrah, p. 216; and Wujūh, p. 264.
334. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 254; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 52; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 612; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 428; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 216; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 265. This is the interpretation of Mujāhid; see Ibn Kathir, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 141.
335. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 296; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 611; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 428-9; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 217.
336. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 189.
337.Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 60.
338. According to Ibn al-Jawzī the basic meaning of d.arb is striking with something like a whip, see Qurrah, p. 163.
339. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 397; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 401-402; and idem, Qurrah, p. 164. Al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 8:12 as an example see Qāmūs, p. 288; see also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1778.
340. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 497; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 382; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 178; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 398; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 401; and idem, Qurrah, p. 163.
341. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 497.
342.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 402; idem, Qurrah, p. 164; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 375.
343. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179. For other meanings of d.arb, see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 619.
344. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 498 and 340; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123. According to Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī the meaning of azwāj in Q. 4:12 and Q. 2:25 is "wives". See Qurrah, p. 140; and Qāmūs, p. 219.
345. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 498; idem, Tafsīr, p. 365; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 16; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1190; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 424; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 337; idem, Qurrah, p. 140; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 219-220.
346. For another example, see Q. 81:7. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 498; idem, Tafsīr, p. 370; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 220; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 336; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 139-140.
347. See al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 23:31.
348.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 441.
349. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 339-340; idem, Tafsīr, p. 162; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 641; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 373 (no. 281); al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 48; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 113; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 291.
350.Al- Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 430.
351.Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, pp. 1266-1267, and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 35.
352. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 188.
353. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 320; idem, Qurrah, pp. 128-129; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 188.
354. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; and idem, Tafsīr, p. 128.
355. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 189, al-Zamakhsharī al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 293; and al-Zamakhsharī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 53. Among the examples of أَلَمْ تَرَ meaning "have not you been informed" given by al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī are Q. 2:258 and Q. 105:1, see al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 189; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 108-109; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 320-321; and idem, Qurrah, p. 130.
356. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 320 and idem, Qurrah, p. 129.
357. S.I. Hayakawa, Choose the Right Word: A Modern Guide to Synonyms (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 610.
358.For further details, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 5, pp. 246-247 and 263-264; and al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 1, pp. 402-403 and 408-409; see also Asad, The Message, p. 113, n. 66.
359. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 500; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 285; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 455; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 580; and idem, Qurrah, p. 226.
360. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 500; idem, Tafsīr, p. 283; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 193; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 285; al-Dāmaghānī. Qāmūs, pp. 454-455; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 379-380; idem, Qurrah, p. 226; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, pp. 422-423. Al-Zamakhsharī also mentions "forget" as the other meaning of nasiya in this verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 868.
361. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 32.
362. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 69; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 508; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 391; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and Tiflisi, Wujūh, p. 169. Al-Dāmaghānī, mentions the meaning as اْلمَوْتُ بِاْلآجَالِ مِنْ غَيْرِ عَذَاب (death at the appointed time without being punishment), see Qāmūs, p. 281, whereas Ibn Fāris renders the meaning of s.a‘iqa in the above verse as "death caused by lightning", see Maqāyīs, vol. 3, pp. 285-286. Lane mentions several meanings, namely, "shall die", "shall fall down dead" or "in a swoon", or "shall lose their reason"; see Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1690. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word صَاعِـقَـة meaning “death” is the language of Ghassān, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 38, and in the language of Oman, see Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, P. 46.
363. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 169; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 280. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī interpret s.ā‘iqah respectively as "a severe punishment like a thunderbolt" and "a punishment like that inflicted on ‘Ād and Thamūd", see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1293, and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 7.
364. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 170; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 281; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281.
365. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 475. Al-Dāmaghānī uses Q. 2:55-56 as the example of the term s.ā‘iqah meaning "death from punishment other than the appointed time, and the person concerned returns to the world", namely, "unconsciousness", see Qāmūs, p. 280.
366. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 475.
367. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502.
368. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 12. Both al-Zamakhsharī and mention akhraja ("take out") as the meaning of akhadha in this verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 489; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 497.
369. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 20; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 10; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 133.
370. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 28. According to al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī, the meaning of the term in this verse is "arrest" only, not "taking a prisoner", see Qāmūs, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 133, and Wujūh, p. 11. Ibn Kathīr mentions the meaning of khudh in the above verse as baddil (exchange), see Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 504.
371. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 503; al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī use the meaning ‘adhāb (punishment, torture) instead of ta‘dhīb for the term akhdh in the above verse, see Qāmūs, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Wujūh, p. 11.
372. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 11. See also al-T.abarsī, Maj ma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 514 and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 77.
373. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 30.
374. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 504; idem, Tafsīr, p. 33; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 345. Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention mulk only as the meaning of the term, see Wujūh, pp. 133-134 and Qāmūs, p. 243,
375. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 504; idem, Tafsīr, p. 33; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 83; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1276; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 519; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 133; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 242-243.; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 345.
376. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 185. Tiflīsī suggests القَحْطُ والشِّدَّة (drought and hardship) as the meaning ofالبَأْسَاء وَ الضَّرَّاء in the above verse. Al-Dāmaghānī mentions different verses, namely Q. 7:94 and 2:14, in which البَأْسَاء وَ الضَّرَّاء , according to him, meansالفَقْرُوَالشَِدَّة (poverty and hardship); see Qāmūs, 62.
377. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 184. Ibn Kathīr, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention ‘adhāb as the meaning of the term in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 97; Wujūh, p. 42 ; and Qāmūs, p. 62. Lane mentions both "punishment" and "severe punishment" as the meaning of the term ba’s; see Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146.
378. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146. Ibn al-Jawzī mentions al-shiddah fī ’l-qitāl, whereas Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī simply suggest al-qitāl (the fighting) as the meaning of the term in the above verse; see Wujūh, p. 42; and Qāmūs, p. 62.
379. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, pp. 799-800; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, pp. 213-214; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 157; and Zuhayr, Dīwān, p. 29 in which it is written فَلَأَنْتَ instead of وَلَأَنْتَ. What the poet means, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, is as follows: "If you consider doing something you execute and accomplish it, while others consider but they do not execute it, because they do not have a firm decision, while you are firm in your decision." See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 87.
380. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506 and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10. p. 88.
381. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 800.
382. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 198; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 88; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 107; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 163.
383. Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 19. p. 60, and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 125-126. See also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1004.
384. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 281; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 355.
385. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 262; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 108; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 163.
386. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 85. Ibn al-Jawzī uses the term al-ījād (making, bringing into being) here, see Nuzhah, p. 284; and Qurrah, p. 107. Quoting Q. 32:4 and 23:12, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī give the example in the Qur’ān in which al-khalq means al-khalq fī ’l-dunyā (creation in the world); see Qāmūs, p. 164; and Wujūh, p. 90.
387. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1094; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 85; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 90; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 285; and idem, Qurrah, p. 108.
388. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, p. 31; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 303; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 801.
389. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, p. 31. There are two h.adīths in which the Prophet prohibited castrating domestic animals: one on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās, and the other, on the authority of Ibn ‘Umar. For further details, see ibid., vol. 5, pp. 390-1.
390. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227.
391. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197.
392. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1508; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048.
393. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 196.
394.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508.
395. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 419; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 575.
396. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1047. Both interpretations are also mentioned by Ibn Fāris, see Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 494.
397. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 517; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 169; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 130.
398. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 796; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 112; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 134 and vol. 13, p. 563; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term رَجْم meaning ظَنّ is the language of Hudhayl, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 54.
399. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 460; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 398.
400. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 54.
401. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1049.
402. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 509; idem, Tafsīr, p. 330; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 246; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 349; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 130; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 238; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 228.
403. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 509; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 309; Tiflīsī, Wujūh. p. 130; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 237; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366.
404. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 452; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 16-17; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 171; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, p. 373
405. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 310; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 553; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 350; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 130; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 237.
406. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510, and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366. Tiflīsī and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī use the word jahd (exertion, effort) instead of jidd for the meaning of sa‘y in the above verse, whereas al-T.abarsī uses both words; see Wujūh, p. 130, al-Mufradāt, p. 233; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 377. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī keep the meaning ‘amal for the term sa‘y in the above verse, while Abū ‘Ubaydah mentions "disbelieving", see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 310; Qāmūs, p. 237; and Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 142.
407. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 349; and idem, Qurrah, p. 143.
408. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 282; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 553-554; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 266. For al-Dāmaghānī, the meaning of the term in the above verse is al-h.arā’ir (free women), see Qāmūs, p. 135.
409. See Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 260; and Jāmi‘, vol. 5, pp. 2-7.
410. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 69.
411. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 193; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 486; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 34; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 266; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 134-135.
412. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 217; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 288. Instead of Q. 24:4 above, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī cite the verse مُحْصَنَات غَيْرُ مُسَافِحَات (chaste not debauched) in Q. 4:25, see Qāmūs, p. 135; and Wujūh, p. 266.
413. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512. Al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī give al-balāgh (reaching the end) as the meaning of matā‘ in this verse, although Ibn al-Jawzī also mentions Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation; see Qāmūs, p. 427, and Nuzhah, pp. 558-559.
414. See Tafsīr Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 46. This is also the meaning given by al-Qurt.ubī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 321.
415. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 70; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 87; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263.
416. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, 553; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 461; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 287. Al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī specify the "useful substances", namely, minerals, such as gold, iron, and brass as the meaning of matā‘ in the above verse, see Qāmūs, p. 428 and Wujūh, p. 264.
417. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 249; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 947; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 427; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 8, p. 332; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 293, and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 559. Al-T.abarsī's inter-pretation of matā‘ here is istimtā‘ (enjoyment), see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 136.
418. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 345.
419. See al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 428; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 461; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 559; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 163-164.
420. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 128. Ibn Kathīr, Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī and Ibn al-Jawzī interpret al-kāfī (sufficient) for the meaning of h.isāb in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 496; al-Mufradāt, pp. 116-117; Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 95. Ibn Manz.ūr interprets the meaning of عَطَاءً حِسَابًا as "an abundant and sufficient gift"; the expression شَيْءٌ حِسَاب means "something sufficient"; in the language of the Hudhayl tribe the expressionأَتَانِيْ حِسَابٌ مِنَ النَّاس means "a large group (جَمَاعَة كَثِيْرَة) of people came to me". See Lisān, vol. 1, p. 313, s.v. حسب . Besides "sufficient" Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī mention another meaning of h.isāb in the above verse, namely, "recompense" and "based on the reckoning of their deeds" (عَلىَ حِسَابِ أَعْمَالِهِمْ) respectively; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 283; and al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1572. Qatādah's interpretation of h.isāb here is "abundant", whereas that of Mujāhid is "recompense", see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 14.
421. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 128; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 94.
422. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 513; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 251; and idem, Qurrah, p. 94. Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give different meanings of h.isāban in the above verse, namely, عَدَدًا يَسِيْرًا(easy number) and عَـرْضًا يَسِيْرًا (easy presentation) respectively, see Wujūh, p. 72; and Qāmūs, p. 129.
423. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī also give the similar meaning; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 450; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 428.
424. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 231; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 926; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 109; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 30-31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 38-39.
425. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 231; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 33; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39. They disputed among themselves concerning the resurrection, whether it will be the soul only or body and soul; another interpretation is that they disputed among themselves concerning the length of time the people of the cave had spent in their cave and what to do with them. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 794, and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 490.
426. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39. According to Ibn ‘Abbās and al-H.asan qud.iya ’l-amr means "the matter has been decided and the companions of Heaven and Hell enter their respective place". See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 311.
427. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 25.
428. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 348 and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 581.
429. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 514-515; Ibn Kathīr, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī give exclusively “death” for the meaning of amr in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 331; Wujūh, p. 31; Qurrah, p. 64; and Nuzhah, p. 174. Other interpretations of amr Allāh in this verse are: "the punishment of disbelievers in Hell", and "Allah's assisting His religion and Prophet" and "conquering the disbelievers"; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 237.
430. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40.
431. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 234; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 31-32; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40. Al-T.abarsī mentions kufr as the meaning of amr in this verse, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 309.
432. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31. Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī mention the meaning of amr as sha’n (affair, case), see Qurrah, p. 64, and Qāmūs, p. 41, whereas in Nuzhah Ibn al-Jawzī mentions الشَّأْنُ وَاْلحَال (affair and condition), see Nuzhah, p. 175.
433. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32. It is said that the term amr in verse 42 indicates the victory of Muslims in the battle of Badr, whereas in verse 44 it indicates the continuation of victory; however, it is also said that the repetition of amr is for emphasis; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 547.
434. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32.
435. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 534, and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 16.
436. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 2322-2323; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 97; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32. This interpretation is that of Ibn ‘Abbās; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 185.
437. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 242; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 523; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32.
438. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; and idem, Qurrah, p. 65. The expression فَمَاذَا تَأْمُرُوْن could be expressed by the nobles among themselves, by them to the Pharaoh, or by him to them; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 461.
439. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 546; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175, and idem, Qurrah, p. 65.
440. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41. Al-T.abarsī does not interpret amr here as "drowning" but as "punishment"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 164.
441. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40.
442. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41.
443. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 405; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 10, pp. 232-233.
444. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 519; idem, Tafsīr, p. 471; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 117; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 309; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 161; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 223-224; and al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243.
445. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 519. Al-Qurt.ubī mentions four variant readings of ka’ayyin based on dialects: (1) كَائِن which is the reading of Ibn Kathīr; it is originally كَـيْءٍ with the transformation of letter yā’ into alif; (2) كَـئِنْ which is the drop of the alif in كائِن which is the reading of Ibn Muh.ays.in; (3) كَـاءٍ which is also the reading of Ibn Muh.ays.in; (4) كَأَيـِّنْ which is the original reading. Apart from these four variant readings, al-Qurt.ubī also mentions another but unidentified reading, namely, كَيْـئِنْ . See al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, pp. 228-229.
446. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 520. This is also the view of al-Zarkashī, see al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 331-332.
447. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 65; and Ma‘ānī al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 23. According to al-Suyūt.ī, quoting al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, the particle kayfa in the above verse means tawbīkh (reproach), see al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 224-225; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 196. Al-T.abarsī mentions both tawbikh and ta‘ajjub with his explanation, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 70.
448. Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 159-160.
449. See al-Zarkashi, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 331.
450. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 521. C. Macartney (ed.), Dīwān, p. 248. Ibn Qutaybah does not give an example from the Qur’ān, because, as stated by al-Suyūt.ī, there is no sawā’ in the Qur’ān meaning "except", see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 199.
451. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 521; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 20; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 857; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 14. This is one of the four interpretations of makānan suwan given by A.Y. Ali. The other three are: (1) "a place equaly convenient to both sides"; (2) "an open level plain, where the people can collect with ease"; and (3) "a place where both sides shall have even chances", namely, "a fair place" as Palmer translates it. Although he states that all these four interpretatiosns are possible meanings, he adopts the last which he considers more comprehensive and includes the others. See A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 801, n. 2582. According to Ibn Fāris makānan suwan means "a place where people know how to reach it and get out of it" ; see Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 112. Makānan suwan is the reading of Ibn ‘Āmir, ‘Āsim and H.amzah, whereas Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘, Abū ‘Amr and al-Kisā’ī read it as makānan siwan; see Ibn Mujāhid, al-Sab‘ah, p. 418.
452. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 522; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 98-99; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 732; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 355. See also al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 135.
453. Al-Suyūt.ī, al -Itqān, vol. 2, p. 182.
454. Ibid, pp. 181-182 and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 619.
455. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 468; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 523-524. Here Ibn Qutaybah is quoting al-Farrā’ extensively.
456. Al-Suyūt.ī also says that there is a discrepancy on the function of the definite article al in the term al-ān; some say that it is to indicate the present, others say it is only additional. See al-Itqān vol. 2, p. 161. It is noteworthy that al-ān was originally a noun, according to the grammarians of Bas.rah, whereas according to those of Kūfah, it was originally a verb. See Muh.ammad al-T.antawī, Nash’at al-Nah.w, p. 163.
457. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 142; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 249; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 54; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 611. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 198. Instead of "how", Ibn al-Jawzī suggests matá ("when") as the meaning of anná in the above verse, see Qurrah, p. 38.
458. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 429. As examples, Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Suyūt.ī use the verse Q. 3:37, while al-Dāmaghānī uses Q. 5:75; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 91; al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and Qāmūs, p. 54. According to Ibn Fāris and al-T.abarsī, besides "wherefrom" and "whence", "how" is also the meaning of anná in the above verse, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 142; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 343.
459. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 144; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 39; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175.
460. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 120.
461. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 526, and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 112. An unidentified shaykh from Bas.rah said to al-Farrā’ that he had heard a woman asking her husband the following question: أَيْنَ ابْنُكَ وَيْلَكَ ("Where is your son, woe unto you?"), and her husband answered: وَيْكَأَنَّهُ وَرَاءَ اْلبَيْت meaning أَمَا تَرَيْنَهُ وَرَاءَ اْلبَيْت ("Don't you see him behind the house?"), see al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 312.
462. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 526. According to Qatādah, reported by al-T.abarī, there are two meanings of wayka’anna, namely, أَلَمْ تَرَ أَنَّه and أَوَلاَ يَعْلَمُ أَنَّه, as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above, see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 77.
463. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 527.
464. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 258; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449. For further details on the term wayka’anna see al-Farrā, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 312-313; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, pp. 1067-8; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 268; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 318-319; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, pp. 418-419.
465. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 528, and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 33 (s.v. انن). Ibn Qutaybah does not mention examples from the Qur’ān which are Q. 27:42 and 10:12. For further details, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 217-218; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 161-162.
466. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 529; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 397. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the wordلاَتَ meaning لَيْسَ agrees with that in the Coptic language, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 63, or Nabatean language, see Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 240 and n. 3.
467. Ibid., p. 530.
468. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 531. The purpose of this additional tā’ is to balance the meter of the poem.
469. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 176; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 468, s.v. لات. For further details, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1223; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 230-231.
470. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 532.
471. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 532; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 250. The term mah is an expression indicating reproach and prevention from talking or acting on the part of the listener; see Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 174. For more details on mahmā see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, 470; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 467.
472. Similarly, mā means man in Q. 91:5 and 6; see Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 30-31; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 567; idem, Qurrah, p. 221; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 171.
473. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 261. Instead of Q. 92:3 above, Ibn al-Jawzī mentions Q. 2:159 as an example; see Nuzhah, p. 567; and Qurrah, p. 221.
474. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 5-11. Moreover, the reading of Ibn Mas‘ūd says al-ladhī instead of mā, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1612.
475. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 567; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 140. Al-Tha‘ālibī mentions a variant expression of the people of Makkah when they heard the thunder, namely, Subh.āna mā sabbah.at lahu ’l-ra‘d ("Glory to Whom the thunder has glorified"). Instead of al-ladhī, he interprets man as the meaning of mā in the above expression; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244. On hearing the thunder the Prophet used to say Subh.āna man yusabbih.u al-ra‘du bih.amdih ("Glory to Whom the thunder is glorifying with its praising"), whereas ‘Alī and Ibn ‘Abbās said respectively Subh.āna man sabbah.ta lahu and Subh.āna ’l-ladhī sabbah.ta lahu which have the same meaning; see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 686; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 283.
476. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 270. Al-T.abarī mentions the two meanings of mā in the above verse, namely, man and mā mas.darīyah, see Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 140. Pickthall follows the first, while A.Y. Ali follows the second in their respective translations. Asad follows the second, but says in the footnote that literally it means the first.
477. Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 195-197. However, according to al-Zamakhsharī, the function of ma in the above verse is for emphasis, as it means h.aqqan ("truly") and al-bāttah ("definitely"), see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 61.
478. For further details, see Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 195-197; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 260-262; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 565-567; idem, Qurrah, pp. 220-221; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 171-2; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 242-244.
479. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 261.
480. A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 1688.
481. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1579; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 404; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 243.
482. M.M. Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 686.
483. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 237; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 438.
484. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 566; and idem, Qurrah, p. 221.
485. See H. Moch. Anwar, Tarjamah Matan Alfiyah [Ibn Mālik] (N.p.: Pt. Alma‘arif, 1981), p. 94.
486. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 534; and al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 11. Lane translates يَفْعَلُوْن وَمَا كَادُوْا in the above verse as "and they were not near to doing (it)"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
487. According to al-Qurt.ubī, kāda can be followed by an in Arabic language except in the Qur’ān, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 222.
488. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 534; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 446; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 342. According to al-Qurt.ubī, kāda without an in the above poem would be better, because an indicates the future, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 222. Ibn Mālik asserts that kāda should not be followed by an, although it does occur rarely, see Anwar, Matan Alfiyyah, pp. 94-95.
489. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 534-535. See also Macartney, ed., Shi‘r Dhī ’l-Rummah, p. 392.
490. See al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 11.
491. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 215; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 382, s.v. .كود
492. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 145.
493. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 779 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 431. Al-Suyūt.ī quotes the view of Ibn ‘Abbās who says that every kāda, akādu, or yakādu in the Qur’ān means the action does not take place. See al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 215-216.
494. I am choosing Rodwell's translation of the verse in question, as it agrees with al-Suyūt.ī's interpretation; see J.M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: J.M. Dent & Son Ltd, 1976), p. 447. Asad and ‘Ali translate it as "he can hardly see it", whereas Dawood and Pickthall translate it as "he can scarcely see it" and "he scarce can see it" respectively.
495. This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 67, and al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 955. Al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarsī mention two views: the first is similar to that of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī above; the second is that the verse in question means "he sees it tardily" according to al-Farrā’, and "with difficulty" according to al-T.abarsī; see al-Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 255, and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 146. It is like the expression لَمْ يَكَدْ يَقُوْم “he hardly (scarcely, or tardily) rose" when one has risen after difficulty; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
496. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 215.
497. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 216; al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 12; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 97. See also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
498. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 216. For further details on kāda, see al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, pp. 11-14; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, pp. 382-385 (s.v. كود and كيد).
499. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 536. See also al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 185-186.
500 . Al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242. See also Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 145-146; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 637-638. For further details on bal see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 242-244.
501. It is, as stated by Ibn al-Anbārī, a question of what is unknown to the questioner in order to know and remove doubt, for example, هَلْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله ("Did ‘Abd Allah stand up?" See al-Ad.dād, p. 191.
502. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 538; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 302; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 623; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 477.
503. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 538; idem, Tafsīr, p. 502; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 279; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, pp. 118-119; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 213; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 4, p. 1558; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 406; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 433; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 191-192; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 301-302; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 253.
504. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 538-539; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 387; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 433; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 301; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 240; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 254; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 193.
505. This is one of the meanings of alā. Its other meanings are: (1) interjection to emphasise the statement, such as "behold", "verily", as in أَلَا إِنَّهُمْ هُمُ السُّفَهَاءُ (البقرة: ١٣) “Behold, they are indeed the foolish..." (Q. 2:13); (2) interjection indicating alertness, such as "oh", as in أَلَا يَا صَاحِ قُمْ ("Oh, you who are waking up, stand up!"); and (3) interjection indicating strong demand, as in أَلاَ تَتُوْبُ وَ تَرْتَدُّ عَنْ غَيِّك "Hey, will you repent and stop doing transgression?", see al-Munjid, p. 15 (s.v. الا).
506. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah. p. 625; idem, Qurrah. p. 240; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 302.
507. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 625; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241. Al-T.abarsī mentions three interpretations of the above verse, as follows: (1) It indicates the vastness of Hell, that if it were asked whether it is already full, if it could talk, it would answer that it is not yet full and is still vast enough for more people to enter; (2) Allah creates a means with which Hell will answer when it is asked by Allah; and (3) The question is addressed to the keepers of Hell; they answer that it is already full, to indicate Allah's promise to fill it. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, pp. 147-148.
508. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 540; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 301; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 163; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 141; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 532; and idem, Qurrah, p. 209. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word لَوْ لَا meaning هَلَّاis the language of the Quraysh, as in Q. 24:13, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 58, and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 206.
509. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; idem, Tafsīr, p. 235; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 346; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 716; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 163. According to al-Tha‘ālibī, mā in law mā is either additional or s.ilah, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243.
510. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 533; idem, Qurrah, p. 209; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 239-240. Ibn Fāris mentions two meanings of law lā in the above verse, hallā and lam, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164.
511. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 533; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164. The jumhūr of the commentators, however, do not agree with this interpretation. They say that law lā in the above verse indicates reproach for disbelieving before the coming of punishment. This is supported by Ubayy's variant reading fahallā instead of falaw lā in the above verse; see al-S.uyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 240. Al-Zamakhsharī mentions hallā as the interpretation of law lā, whereas al-T.abarsī mentions both lam and hallā; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 598; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 134.
512. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1226; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 234. Instead of the above verse, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give other examples, among which is Q. 62:3. Al-Tha‘ālibī and Ibn Fāris assert that lammā means lam only if it indicates the future, as in the above example; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164.
513. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 756; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 143; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 422; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 235. Ibn Qutaybah mentions a variant reading of lammā, which is lamā. The word lamā is the combination of la (which acts as emphasis) and mā which is s.ilah that can be dropped. The above verse, then, based on this reading means وَ إِنْ كُلُّ ذَلِكَ لَمَا مَتَاعُ اْلحَيَاةِ الُّدُّنْيَا "Verily, all of them are a provision of the life of the world." We notice here that in is light inna (meaning "verily"). See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; see also Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 46; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1326.
514. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 143; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 422; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 257. Al-Tha‘ālibī and Ibn Fāris assert that lammā can mean h.īna only if it indicates the past, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243 and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 165. Al-Suyūt.ī states that apart from the occurrence in the past, there should also be two clauses, the validity of one depends on the other, as in فَلَمَّا نَجَّاكُمْ إِلَى الْبَرِّ أَعْرَضْتُمْ (الإسراء: ٦٧) "... but when He brought you safe to land, ye turned away, ..." (Q. 17:67), see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 234.
515. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qur’ān, such as قَالُوا لَبِثْنَا يَوْمًا أَوْ بَعْضَ يَوْمٍ (المؤمنون: ١١٣) "They will answer: ‘We have spent there a day, or part of a day;..’" (Q. 23:113, Asad). See al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 612. Ibn Fāris explains the distinction between the expression أَ زَيْدٌ عِنْدَكَ أَوْ بَكْر ("Is Zayd with you or Bakr?"), and أَ زَيْدٌ عِنْدَك أَمْ عَمْرو “Is Zayd with you or [rather] ‘Amr?". In the first expression the questioner is in doubt whether one of the two persons is with us; the answer will be yes or no. In the second expression the questioner knows that one of the two persons is with us, but he wonders whether it is Zayd or ‘Amr; the answer will be one of the two, Zayd or ‘Amr. See al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127.
516. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 259; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 1209; idem, Qurrah, p. 41; al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 5:89 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 56.
517. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 222; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 415; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 38-39; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 109-10; idem, Qurrah, p. 42; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 258; and al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241, citing Q. 76:24 as an example.
518. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 362.
519. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 543-544; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 175; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 239;Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 258; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, p. 54; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, vol. 2, p. 241; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawzī cites the view of Abū Zakariyyā who says that the function of aw in this verse is to indicate obscurity (لِلْإِبْهَام), see Nuzhah, p. 110. It means that the exact number is known by Allah, but He made it secret when He added aw yazīdūn (or more), see Qurrah, p. 42. Ibn Fāris mentions three interpretations of aw in the above verse: wa, bal, and ibāh.ah (permission), namely, if someone says that the number is one hundred thousand, he is right, and if the other says even more than that, he is also right, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127. Al-T.abarsī mentions four meanings, namely, al-ibhām, al-takhyīr, wa, and bal. For further details, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 459. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the meaning of aw in the above verses is bal in the language of Kindah tribe, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 62 and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qaba’il, p. 238.
520. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 543-544 and idem, Tafsīr, p. 375. It is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah, that the particle aw in this poem means wa, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 148.
521. See Muh.ammad al-T.ant.āwī, Nash’at al-Nah.w, p. 163.
522. See Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 128.
523. See ibid., pp. 128-129. For more details, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 209-214.
524. See ibid., pp. 127-128.
525. According to Ibn Fāris, aw in this poem means illā an, so that it means "unless we die", instead of "till we die". See ibid., p. 128.
526. See Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241. For more details on aw, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 175-178; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 612-614; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 54-55; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 122-123.
527. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 546; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 105; and idem, Qurrah, p. 37. Al-Dāmaghānī cites this verse saying that am in this verse means istifhām (question), see Qāmūs, p. 37.
528. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 546; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 130; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 105-106; and idem, Qurrah, p. 38. This is the view of Sībawayh, according to al-Tha‘ālibī, citing Q. 2:108 as an example, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p.241. Al-T.abarsī inteprets am in this verse as bal, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 61.
529. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 546-547. According to Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, am in this verse is synonymous with the conjunctions wa and bal; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 130.
530. Al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 240-241; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 233; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 167. Ibn Fāris refers to the view of al-Farrā’ who says that the Arabs put bal in the sense of am and vice versa if the sentence starts with a question, see Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 125-126; al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 13:33 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 106; and Qurrah, p. 38.
531. This is the view of Abū ‘Ubydah, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 278.
532. This is the view of Abū Zayd, see Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 126, whereas according to Abū ‘Ubaydah, it means bal, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 204. For further details on the particle am, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 180-186; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 163-165; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 598-603.
533. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 548; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 165.
534. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 631-632; and idem, Qurrah, p. 245
535 . See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 374; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 439.
536. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 211; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 211; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 211; and al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 1, p. 132; see also al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 229; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 170.
537. Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 166.
538. Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 215-216; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 166; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 277; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 207; and al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān., pt. 1, p. 133. As a unit, the Qur’ān mentions the allegation of the infidels in one sūrah, and rejects the allegation in the other. For example, وَقَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِي نُزِّلَ عَلَيْهِ الذِّكْرُ إِنَّكَ لَمَجْنُونٌ (الحجر: ٦) "And yet, they [who deny the truth] say: 'O thou unto whom this reminder has [allegedly] been bestowed from on high: verily, thou art mad!'" (Q. 15:6, Asad), is rejected with مَا أَنْتَ بِنِعْمَةِ رَبِّكَ بِمَجْنُونٍ (القلم: ٢) “Thou art not, by thy Sustainer's grace, a madman!" (Q. 68:2, Asad). See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 229. However, al-Farrā’ states that it is also correct to read لَأُ قْسِمُ بِيَوْمِ اْلقِيَامَة, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 207. In this case, la is what is called by Ibn Jinnī لاَمُ اْلإبْتِدَاء (lām used for starting a sentence), see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 394. For more details on لاَ, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 351-361.
539. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 549; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 616. Abū ‘Ubaydah says that the meaning of awlā is تَوَعُّد (threat), see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 278.
540. For further details, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 616-617.
541. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 550; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 412. Instead of an yaghd.abū it is also written an taghd.abā, see idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 63. However, both are translated as al-ghad.ab, since it is the object (maf‘ūl) of the verb jaramat. According to Sībawayh, Khalīl, Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn Fāris in his work al-S.āh.ibī, the term jaramat means ah.aqqat, so that the verse means "... it was right that the Fazārah tribe would be angry ...", while according to al-Farrā‘, Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn Fāris in his other work, Mayāqīs, it means kasabat, namely, the killing caused the Fazārah tribe to be angry (كَسَبَتْهُمُ اْْلغََضَب). See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 358; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 150; idem, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 446; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 9; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 550. However, both meanings are correct, according to Ibn al-Sayyid, although he leans to al-Farrā’s view, when he gives the meaning of the second part of the poem as كَسَبَتْ فَزَارَةُ اْلغَضَبَ عَلَيْكَ, as translated above. Instead of t.a‘antu it should be read t.a‘anta (you have stabbed), as the poet in the preceding line addressed the assassin, yā Karzu ("O Kurz"). For further details, see Ibn al-Sayyid, al-Iqt.idāb (Beirut: N.p., 1901), p. 313, quoted in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 550-551, nn. 3 and 4.
542. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 551. Al-Farrā’ said that he heard the Arabs saying فُلانٌ جَرِيْمَةُ أَهْلِهِ meaning كَاسِبُ أَهْلِه “a provider for his family", and خَرَجَ يَجْرِمُهُمْ meaning خَرَجَ يَكْسِبُ لَهُمْ “he went out to provide for them". See Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 299. The word commonly used for "crime" is jarīmah.
543. See al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 362-363, and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 231.
544. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 217; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 53; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 129-130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. Yah.yá ibn Sallām cites also many other examples, such as Q. 67: 9 and 20, see al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 195-196. See also al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 603-604 with different examples.
545. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 220; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 53; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. This is the view of Qut.rub, according to al-Suyūt.ī, citing Q. 87:9 as an example; see Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 605-606. According to al-Farrā’, in can mean qad if it is accompanied with the particle la or alā, as in the above example, and in the expressions such as إِنْ قَامَ لَعَبْدُ الله and أَلَا إِنْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله meaning قَدْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله , see Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 189-190. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of in in the verse in question is innahu, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 446.
546. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; idem, Garīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, pp. 211-212; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 2, p. 219; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 52; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 35-36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 130-131; and idem, Qurrah, p. 53. See also al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 605 with the example from Q. 3:139 and 48:27.
547. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 332-333.
548. See Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 129; idem, Qurrah, p. 52; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 167-168.
549. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 605. The particle mā in this verse means "not". According to Ibn al-Anbārī it is not correct to interpret فِيمَا إِنْ مَكَّنَّاكُمْ فِيهِ as فِيْ الَّذِيْ قَدْ مَكَنَّاكُمْ فِيْهِ in which mā means al-ladhī (which), and in means qad in the above verse, but rather as فَيْ الَّذِيْ مَا مَكَنَّاكُمْ فِيْهِ and فِيْ الَّذِيْ لَمْ نُمَكِّنْكُمْ فِيْهِ in which mā means al-ladhī, and in means mā (not). For further details, see al-Ad.dād, pp. 189-190, and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 215-222. This is also the view of al-Farrā’, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 56.
550. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 604. For further details on in, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 106-108.
551. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 554.
552. See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 475.
553. See al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 306; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269.
554. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 554.
555. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269. According to Ibn Manz.ūr, Ibn al-Sikkīt's view is hā’iyā and hā’unna instead of respectively hā’uma and hā’umna for the feminine dual and plural; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 482. It is said that hā’um indicates activity and pleasure. When a Bedouin called the Prophet loudly, he answered with a long hā’um; see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269. For further details on ha see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 253 and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 482, s.v.ها. Ibn Fāris's dealing with hā is similar to that of Ibn Qutaybah, almost verbatim, see, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 175.
556. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 555; however, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, it is also said hātiyā for the dual masculine as well as feminine of the term hāt, see Lisān, vol. 2, p. 107. Ibn Fāris's reliance on Ibn Qutaybah's Ta’wīl is also apparent in dealing with the term hāt, see al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 175-176.
557. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 556; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 147-148; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 130; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2143-2144
558. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 557; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 208; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 129 and vol. 14, p. 151; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 617; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 59; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 432 and vol. 2, p. 1124.
559. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 557; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 254; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, pp. 617-618; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 129. According to al-Suyūt.ī, the well-known origin of allāhumma is yā Allāhu in which yā is dropped and replaced with mma (stressed mim) after Allāh, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 163.
560. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 6, p. 60.
561. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 558. This is the view of Sībawayh and others, such as al-Akhfash and al-Zajjāj, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 231 (s.v..كلا). According to them there is no other meaning of kallā in the Qur’ān, so that a group of them say that whenever kallā is mentioned in a sūrah in the Qur’ān, it indicates that it belongs to the Meccan sūrahs. This is because it signifies warning and threat, most of which were revealed in Mecca (Makkah) since wickedness mostly occurred in that city. Sībawayh and the majority of the philologists also believe that kallā is a simple word, whereas according to Tha‘lab, it consists of ka (meaning "like") and lā (meaning "not"); the lā is doubled with tashdīd to emphasise the new meaning and to repel the assumption that the basic meanings of the two words still remain. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 221.
562. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 558; and Al-Zamakhsharī, Al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1556.
563. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah pp. 511-513. Among those who interpreted kallā as synonymous to h.aqqan was al-Kisā’ī, whereas according to Abū H.ātim the term means alā ("know!"); see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 221-222; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, pp. 147-148. Al-Kisā’ī makes a distinction between lā and kallā, as follows: Lā indicates a simple negation, whereas kallā indicates negating something, but at the same time affirms something else. For example, somebody said to you, "You have eaten something," and you said, "Lā" (similar to the Indonesian "tidak"), it means you denied the occurrence of the action of eating anything. But if another person said to you, "You have eaten a date," and you said, "Kallā" (similar to the Indonesian "bukan"), because you denied eating a date, but affirmed eating something else, such as honey; see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 231, (s.v. كلا ).
564. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 559; al-Zamkahsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1596; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 472. This is the interpretation of ruwaydan in this verse according to Qatādah, whereas according to Ibn ‘Abbās it means qarīban (shortly); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 12.
565. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 559. Ibn Qutaybah as well as Ibn Fāris misquoted the poem when they mentioned مِثْلُ مَنْ which is incorrect; see ibid. and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 153 and Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 458. The correct word is ثَمِلٌ as quoted by Ibn Manz.ūr as well as al-Qurt.ubī, and as translated above. For further details on ruwaydan, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 189 (s.v. رود); see also al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 12.
566. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 560; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 76.
567. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 159; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75.
568. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 561; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 258-259; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449. Al-T.abarsī interprets al-wayl in both verses as "disaster"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, pp. 41 and 42.
569. For further details, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, pp. 737-740 (s.v. ويل); and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 8.
570. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 5621; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 4, pp. 601-602 (s.v. عمر).
571 . See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 342. Al-Zamakhsharī cites two interpretations: the first is as mentioned above, and the second is that the expression la‘amruk in the above verse was said by the angels to Prophet Lot; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 723-724. The angels' expression was most probably a du‘ā’, meaning "may Allah prolong your life span", since it is inconceivable that they would swear other than by Allah. Asad, using the second interpretation given by al-Zamakhsharī, translates the verse in question as follows: "[But the angels spoke thus:] 'As thou livest, [O Prophet Lot, they will not listen to thee:] behold, in their delirium [of lust] they are but blindly stumbling to and fro!'"; see M. Asad, The Message, p. 390.
572. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 562. According to Ibn al-H.ājib, the term should also be preceded by a question, since iy means "yes"; see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 180; see also idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449.
573. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 562. Instead of balá, as asserted by Ibn Qutaybah, according to Ibn Fāris, al-Qurt.ubī, and al-Suyūt.ī, the meaning of iy is na‘am (yes). See al-S.āh.ibī, p. 129; al-Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 351; and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 180. Although both mean "yes", they are used differently. Balá is used in two places: (a) to reject a negative statement, as in زَعَمَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنْ لَنْ يُبْعَثُوا قُلْ بَلَى وَرَبِّي لَتُبْعَثُنَّ (التغابن: ٧) “They who are bent on denying the truth claim that they will never be raised from the dead! Say: 'Yea, by my Sustainer! Most surely will you be raised from the dead, ...'" (Q. 64:7, Asad); (b) to invalidate the negation in the interrogative sentence; the question is either real (h.aqīqī), reproach (tawbīkh), or establishment (taqrīr). It is like doch in German and si in French. Their respective examples are as follows: أَلَيْسَ زَيْدٌ بِقَائِمٍ؟ بَلىَ "Is not Zayd standing? Yes, he is"; أَيَحْسَبُ الْإِنْسَانُ أَلَّنْ نَجْمَعَ عِظَامَهُ. بَلَى (القيامة: ٣-٤) "Does man think that We cannot [resurrect him and] bring his bones together again? Yea, indeed, ..." (Q. 75:3-4, Asad); and أَلَسْتُ بِرَبِّكُمْ قَالُوا بَلَى (الأعراف: ١٧٢) ".... 'Am I not your Sustainer?' - to which they answer: 'Yea, indeed, ...'" (Q. 7:172, Asad). Should they say na‘am instead of balá in the last example, they would have become disbelievers, because na‘am in this case would mean "Yes, You are not our Sustainer." This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and others. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 186-187. Since Q. 10:53 quoted above is the only verse in which iy is used, and since this verse does not belong to any of the above categories, the word iy in the above verse, in its strict sense, in my view, should mean na‘am instead of balá. Why, then, did not Ibn Qutaybah mention na‘am as the only meaning of iy instead of balá, or at least, include it? Probably because, as we have seen, na‘am is also used to confirm a negative statement so that it means "no", whereas balá always means "yes", whether in confirming an affirmative statement or in negating a negative statement. Moreover, iy meaning balá is mentioned before an oath only as a ilah of it to emphasise the truth of the statement, in this case, that Allah would punish the idolaters in the Hereafter for their wrong-doings as mentioned in the previous verse (Q. 10:52). This may indicate Ibn Qutaybah's deep understanding of the subject, and this is one of his contributions in the Qur’ānic exegesis.
574. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 588.
575. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 563; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 169; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 383. According to al-Zamakhsharī, ladunnī can also be read ladunī and ladnī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 810.
576. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 563. For further details on ladun, ladā and ‘inda, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 206-207.
577. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 571; see also al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 233. Instead of إِلىَ مَكَان مَعَ, Ibn Qutaybah in his Adab al-Kātib uses إِلىَ بِمَعْنىَ مَعَ, see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544. Apparently, there is no difference between the two expressions, although the latter is used by later writers. However, out of fifteen cases in his Ta’wīl, Ibn Qutaybah only once used بِمَعْنىَ , whereas in his Adab al-Kātib he used both fifteen times.
578. Asad and Pickthall translate مَعَ الله respectively as "in God's cause" and "in the cause of Allah"; see Asad, The Message, p. 75 and Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 55. These translations are probably based on the interpretation of al-H.asan al-Bas.rrī who says that إِلىَ الله means فِيْ السَّبِيْلِ إِلىَ الله; see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 97. Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation is based on what he thinks is Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation; see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544. But Abū ‘Ubaydah states that مَنْ أَنْصَارِ ْإِلىَ الله means مَنْ أَعْوَانِي فِيْ ذَاتِ الله, so that, instead of ma‘a, the term ilá here means fī; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 94. It is possible that Ibn Qutaybah means al-Farrā’ rather than Abū ‘Ubaydah, as al-Farrā’ accepts the interpretation of ilá as ma‘a in the above verse as a good one (وَجْهٌ حَسَن); see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 218. Moreover, this is also the interpretation of the grammarians of Kūfah to which al-Farrā’ is said to belong or to lean; see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 162. In addition, this interpretation has been adopted by al-Tha‘ālibī, al-Qayrawānī, al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Ibn Fāris; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 1, p. 806; Qāmūs, pp. 36-37; Wujūh, pp. 26-27; Nuzhah, p. 103; Qurrah, p. 40; and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 132.
579. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 571; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 218; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 169 (s.v. ذود).
580. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 536-537.
581. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 162. According to Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī, and Ibn al-Jawzī, the particle ilá here means li (for); see Wujūh, p. 27; Qāmūs, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 103; and Qurrah, p. 40.
582. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540.
583. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538; al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 142; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183. According to al-Qurt.ubī, this is the view of al-Zajjāj and an unidentified group of grammarians. See al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 63.
584. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 407; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 208-209; and [al-Mufad.d.al al-D.abbī], al-Mufd.d.alīyāt, p. 392. Instead of bas.īr in the poem, al-Qurt.ubī uses khabīr (an expert), see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 63.
585. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 42; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 209-210; and idem, Qurrah, p. 82. This is the interpretation of al-Kalbī and al-H.asan adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation, however, is that of Muqātil, who says that بِاْلحَقّ means بِاْلأَمْرِ اْلحَقّ. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 16, p. 147.
586. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 143; here al-Qurt.ubī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah with the expression qālahu ’l-Qutabī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 209; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 184. Besides Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, al-Qurt.ubī and al-T.abarsī also mention the view of al-Farrā’ who says that the expression yashrabu bihā and yashrabuhā have the same meaning; it is like the expression إِنَّهُ لَيَتَكَلَّمُ بِكَلامٍ حَسَنٍ ("Verily he speaks with a good speech") and يَتَكَلَّمُ كَلامًا حَسَنًا ("he speaks a good speech"). It is said that bi in this verse is additional; see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 407; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 215. This view is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, pp. 105-106. See also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 487. In rejecting the above views Ibn Taymiyyah contends that if bi is additional in this verse, the verse would mean that the drinker may drink the drink without quenching his thirst. On the other hand, if it is said that bi is in the sense of min, there would not be any indication that the drinker is quenching his thirst. Therefore, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, it is said that the bi in yashrabu bihā indicates that the quenching of the drinker's thirst occurs with this special drink. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmū‘ Fatāwā ibn Taymiyyah, ed. ‘Abd al-Rah.mān ibn Muh.ammad al-H.anbalī (Riyadh: N.p., 1382 A.H.), 1st ed., vol. 20, p. 474. This is also the view of the effective investigators (al-muh.aqqiqūn) according to al-Zarkashī. He states that the meaning of the preposition bi in the verse in question is to indicate inclusion (tad.mīn) of the meaning of yarwī (he quenches the thirst) in the verb yashrabu (he drinks). As the verb yashrabu is itself a transitive verb, it does not need the preposition bi except for a purpose. This purpose is to include the quenching of the thirst in its meaning. Therefore, the verb yashrabu bi includes both literal and metaphorical meanings; see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 3, p. 338. Besides the above interpretations al-Qayrawānī also mentions another interpretation, namely, the preposition bi indicates the location of the fountain, and the term ‘aynan means mā’ ‘ayn (water of a fountain), so that the verse in question means "Water of a fountain where the servants of God shall drink"; see I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 672.
587. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 407; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 487. Ibn al-Sayyid says that there are two views concerning the meaning of the word matá in this poem, min (from) and wasat. (amidst), see al-Iqtid.āb. p. 447, quoted by A. S.aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575, n. 3. Nūrah Shamlān, in her work on the life and poems of Abū Dhu’ayb, chooses the first view, whereas Ibn Fāris chooses the second; see Shamlān, Abū Dhu’ayb al-Hudhalī: H.ayātuh wa Shi‘ruh (Riyadh: ‘Imādah Shu’ūn al-Maktabāt, Riyadh University, 1400/1980), p. 104 and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 296. It is said, however, that matá in the language of the al-Hudhayl tribe means fī (in, at); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126, n. 1; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 215, n. 3.
588. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543. It is written ilá bima‘ná fī which is a misprint, and should be bi instead of ilá as has been corrected here.
589. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183.
590. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
591. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183.
592. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
593. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 211; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183. For further details on bi and its meanings, see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 634-637.
594. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 573; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 545; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 246; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 283; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 442; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. According to Ibn Manz.ūr the particle ‘alá in the above verse means min as well as ‘an; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 89. Al-Dāmaghānī gives Q. 16:9 as an example: it reads وَعَلىَ اللهِ قَصْدُ السَّبِيْل “It is from Allah the direction of the right path."; see Qāmūs, p. 332.
595. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 573 and 380, and idem, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 545-546. Al-Qurt.ubī also cites this poem, but he says that عَلىَ أَقْطَاِرهَا means فِيْ أَقْطَارِهَا, rather than مِنْ أِقْطَارهَا, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, p. 359.
596. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578, and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 83. The criminal charge meant in this verse is the accidental killing of an Egyptian by Prophet Moses. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 92.
597. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 542; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 3, pp. 703-704 (with an example from poetry); al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 187; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 442-443; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. Al-Suyūtī goes further and says that the interpretation عَلىَ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانِ ("in the kingdom of Solomon") means فِيْ زَمَانِ مُلْكِهِ, namely, "in the time of his reign" as translated by Asad above; see al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 201-202. This meaning agrees with that given by al-Zajjāj who says that عَلىَ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانِ means عَلىَ عَهْدِ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَان ("at the time of Solomon's reign"); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 42. Al-T.abarsī mentions two interpretations: "against the kingdom of Solomon" as translated by Pickthall, and "in the time of Solomon's reign" mentioned above; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 174.
598. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145.
599. See al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 333. Al-Suyūt.ī cites a different example, namely, وَتَوَكَّلْ عَلَى الْحَيِّ الَّذِي لَا يَمُوتُ (الفرقان: ٥٨) "Hence, place thy trust in the Living One who dies not,..." (Q. 25:58, Asad), and calls the substituted particle بَاءُ اْلإسْتِعَانَة (the particle bi used for seeking help); see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 202.
600. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 545.
601. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 201; see also al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 285.
602. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 242.
603. Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 27; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 69
604. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 537; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 88. Lane translates the expression رَمَيْتُ عَلىَ اْلقَوْس as رَمَيْتُ بِالْقَوْس ("I shot with the bow") rather than عَنِ اْلقَوْس ("from the bow"); see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145.
605. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540. For further details on ‘alá see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2144-2145.
606. However, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, it is correctt to say رَمَيْتُ عَلىَ اْلقَوْس, but not بِالْقَوْس ; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 88.
607. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
608. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 541; C.J. Lyall, ed., The Mufad.d.aliyyāt, p. 160; and Ibn Fāris, Mayāqīs, vol. 2, p. 179. According to Ibn Fāris, the word lāh is the name of Allah; with the addition of the definite article al, it makes the word Allāh; see Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 227. Lane translated lāh as lillāhi darru, as translated above; see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
609. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 203; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
610. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 542.
611. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; and al-Suyūt.ī al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 203.
612. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, pp. 181-182.
613. See Asad, The Message, pp. 144 and 151; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, pp. 103 and 107; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, pp. 245 and 254.
614. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 542-543.
615. Idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p. 358; and Lane Lexicon, pt 4, p.475 (s.v. سوم).
616. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 567; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 536; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 14 and vol. 2, p. 23; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 303; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, pp. 190-191; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 367; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 211; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 230; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467. Ibn Fāris mentions the reason for the use of fī in the above verse. He says it is because the trunks for the crucified persons are like graves for the buried ones; see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 158. According to al-Farrā’فِيْ جُذُوْعِ النَّخْـل means that the crucifixion is done by putting the persons to be crucified on lengthwise on the tree trunks, whereas عَلىَ جُذُوْعِ النَّخْل means that they are lifted and put on the trunks; see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 186. Another view is that of al-Mubarrad and al-Qayrawānī that the particle fī is used to indicate that the trunks surrounded (contained) him; see al-Mubarrad, al-Kāmil, vol. 2, p. 823; and I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 3, p. 806.
617. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 539; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 303; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 212. Al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī cite Q. 4:97 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 367; and Wujūh, p. 230. This idiomatic phrase, according to Asad, indicates "one's inability to refute a reasonable proposition by cogent, logical counter arguments". For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 372, n. 10.
618. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 539-540 in which tunūshida is written is probably nūshida as cited above. See also al-A‘shá, Dīwān al-A‘shá, p. 55 in which yunāshadu is written rather than tunūshida or nūshida.
619. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 368; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 477; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 191-192.
620. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 3, pp. 25-26; Asad, The Message, p. 45; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 31; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 82.
621. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 546. Translation rendered by Tengku Jusoh, Tengku Ghani. A Critical Examination of five Poems by Imru al-Qays (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, 1990), pp. 15 and 62. This is also the view of al-As.ma‘ī according to al-Qurt.ubī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 162-163. However, according to Muh.ammad Abū al-Fad.l Ibrāhīm, fī is in the sense of ma‘a in this poem, so that the verse means "thirty months apart from three years"; see M.A. Ibrāhīm, ed., Dīwān Umru’ al-Qays, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1384/1964), p. 27.
622. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 367; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 230-231; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 3093, and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 212.
623. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 546.
624. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 190; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 366-367; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 213; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 302, and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 211. Tiflīsī does not quote this verse, but quotes many others, see Wujūh, p. 230.
625. For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 434, n. 119.
626. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 162-3; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 370; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 393; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 980. With regard to those nine signs or miracles, they are, according to Ibn ‘Abbās in one of his interpretations and Mujāhid, as follows: the rod (Q. 7:107), the radiant hand (Q. 7:108), the years of drought or shortage of water (Q. 7:130), shortage of crops (Q. 7:130), epidemics among men and beasts, locusts, lice, frogs, and the water turning to blood (Q. 7:133). Another interpretation attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, is that he includes the split of the sea as substitute for shortage of crops which is probably included by him in the category of drought and shortage of water, as done by al-H.asan al-Bas.rī; see al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 2, p. 403. The first interpretation was adopted by Ali, see The Holy Qur’ān, p. 378, n. 1091.
627.For further details, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 302-304.
628. See Ali, The Holy Qur’an, p. 715; and Asad, The Message, p. 430
629. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 569; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 537-8; and idem, Qurrah, p. 211. Al-Suyūt.ī cites Q. 13:25 as an example from the Qur’ān, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225.
630. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; here it is written إِلىَ بِمَعْنىَ اللَّام which is misprinted, and should be اللَّامُ بِمَعْنىَ إِلىَ. Cf. idem, Ta’wīl, p. 522 in which it is written اللَّامُ بِمَعْنىَ إِلىَ .
631. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 572; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1616; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 538; idem, Qurrah, p. 212; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 341; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 552. Another example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 7:43 in which هَدَانَا لْهَذَا means هَدَانَا إِلىَ هَذَا; see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544.
632. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
633. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 539; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 212-213.
634. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225; and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 341.
635. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 546-547.
636. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 342. In fact, there are many other meanings of li mentioned by al-Zarkashī. For further details, see ibid., pp. 339-350.
637. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 443; al-Tha‘ālībī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 276; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 172; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248.
638. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578 and idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538.
639. Al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 420; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248. Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 12:87 and 50:19; see Nuzhah, p. 577; and Qurrah, p. 225.
640. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 574; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 60; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 324; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 420; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 576-577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 442; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 275; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 42:45 as an example.
641. For further details on this verse, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, pp. 291-293. See also Asad, The Message, p. 60, n. 25.
642. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 370; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 224; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 62:9 as an example. For more details on the meanings of min, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 415-426.
IBN QUTAYBAH'S TREATISE OF AMBIGUOUS
LETTERS, WORDS, AND PARTICLES IN
THE VERSES OF THE QUR’ĀN
This chapter examines letters assumed to be absurd and stylistically spoiling, words which have many different meanings, meanings of particles, and the substitution of particles in the verses of the Qur’ān as follows:
A. Letters Assumed to Be Absurd and
Stylistically Spoiling
The main concern of Ibn Qutaybah on this subject is the letters of the alphabet at the beginning of twenty-nine sūrahs in the Qur’ān, technically called by the exegetes al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah (the disconnected letters) and fawātih. al-suwar (the openings of the chapters). The term alphabet itself is derived from the first and the second letters of the Greek alphabet, namely, alpha (, ), and beta (, ), corresponding to letter A and B respectively in the Latin alphabet. The Arabic alphabet is called h.urūf al-mu‘jam (lit., "the letters of the dictionary"), al-h.urūf al-hijā’īyah (lit., "letters put in successive order"), and al-h.urūf al-abjadīyah (lit., "the letters put in the abjd order"), which is the classical Arabic alphabetical order. They and their numerical values are as follows: ا (1) ب (2), ج (3), د (4), هـ (5), و (6), ز (7), ح (8), ط (9), ي (10), ك (20), ل (30), م (40), ن (50), س (60), ع(70), ف (80), ص (90), ق (100),ر (200),ش (300), ت (400), ث (500), خ (600), ذ (700), ض (800), ظ (900), and غ (1000). They are combined together for easy memorisation as follows: اَبْجَدْ هَوَّزْ حُطِّيْ كَلَمَنْ سَعَفَصْ قَرَشَتْ ثَخِذٌ ضظِغٌ. This classical order is closer to the Greek alphabetical order than the modern one which is as follows: ا ب ت ث ج ح خ د ذ ر ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ق ك ل م ن هـ و ي .
There are fourteen letters of the Arabic alphabet which occur in fourteen different combinations. These letters are: ا , ل , م , ر , ك , ح , ي , ع , ص , ط , س , ق , ن , and هـ . They are always pronounced singly, such as: nūn for N, t.ā-hā for T.-H, and alif-lām-mīm, for A-L-M. Their combinations and the sūrahs in which they are located are as follows: الـم (2, 3, 29, 30, 31, and 32); الـر (10, 11, 12, 14, and 15); المـر (13); المص (7); حـم (40, 41, 43, 44, 45, and 46); حم عسق (42); كهيعص (19); ن (68); ق (50); ص (38), طـس (27); طسم (26, and 28); طـه (20), and يـس (36).
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four different views concerning these letters. He states that each of these views has its own merit, which are as follows: These letters are the names of the sūrahs to which they belong; they are Allah's oaths; they are letters taken from Allah's attributes, and they are letters taken from the attributes of the Qur’ān. According to the first view, the letter or combined letters at the beginning of a certain sūrah is the name of that sūrah itself. Sūrat al-A‘rāf (sūrah 7), for example, is also called Sūrat المص. However, whenever the same letters occur at the beginning of more than one surah, the usual name of that surah is added to it, for example, الم اْلبَقَرَة (sūrah 2), الم آل عِمْرَان (sūrah 3), and السَّجْدَة حم (sūrah 41).[1] This is the view of Zayd ibn Aslam (d. 136/754).[2]
With regard to the second view, Ibn Qutaybah says that it means that Allah's oath includes all the letters of the alphabet by mentioning some of them. It is like someone saying that he has learned the ABC, meaning all the letters of the alphabet, or that he had read al-h.amdu lillāh, meaning the whole introductory sūrah of the Qur’ān.[3] The reason for Allah's oaths with these letters is to indicate their nobility and merit (لِشَرَفِهَا وَفَضْلِهَا) "because they are the foundation of His Scriptures revealed in various languages, the bases of His beautiful names and exalted attributes, and the origins of the languages of nations by which they know each other, remember and believe in His Oneness..." [4] The Qur’ānic verse (البقرة : ١) الم. ذَلِكَ الْكِتَابُ لَا رَيْبَ فِيهِ , for example, according to this view, means "By the letters of the alphabet, it is the book where there is no doubt in it..." (Q. 2:1)[5]
With regard to the third view, the use of letters of the alphabet to indicate Allah's attributes is praised by Ibn Qutaybah as an art of abbreviating words with letters commonly practised among the Arabs.[6] One of the many examples given by him is the combined letters كهيعص. According to the interpretation attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, each of these letters respectively stands for an attribute of Allah, namely, ك stands for كَافٍ (Efficient), هـ for هَادٍ (Guiding), ي for حَكِيْم (Wise), ع for عَلِيْم (All-knowing), and ص for صَادِق (truthful).[7]
Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are: ا , ب , ج , and م which stands respectively for آلاءُ الله (Allah's sign), بَهَاءُ الله (Allah's magnificence), جَمَالُ الله (Allah's beauty), and مَجْدُ الله (Allah's glory); حم stands for حَلِيْم (Gentle) and مَجِيْد (Exalted), two attributes of Allah.[8] It is also reported that according to Ibn ‘Abbās الـم is the abbreviation of “Allah, Jibril, and Muhammad”. Another interpretation attributed to him is that the الـم stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَعْلَم (I, Allah, know), الـر stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَرَى (I, Allah, see), and المـص stands for أَنَا اللهُ أَفْصِل (I, Allah, decide). This interpretation is chosen by al-Zajjāj who said that every letter should have a meaning.[9]
The fourth view is that of al-Kalbī who says that the combination of letters in كهيعص means that the Qur’ān is an efficient, guiding, wise, knowing, and truthful book [10](كِتَابٌ كَافٍ هَـادٍ حَكِـيْمٌ عَلِيْمٌ صَـاِدق). Instead of H.akīm, the letter y stands for يَدُهُ فَوْقَ أَيْدِيْهِم ْ ("His Hand is above their hands") is also attributed to al-Kalbī.[11] However, al-Qurt.ubī states that according to al-Kalbī, these letters are of Allah's names by which He made His oath.[12]
Some exegetes whom Ibn Qutaybah does not identify say that طـه , يـس , and letter ن respectively means يَا رَجُلُ ("O man"), يَا إِنْسَا نُ ("O human being"), and الدَّوَاة (the inkwell).[13] According to Ibn ‘Abbās as reported by ‘Ikrimah, طـه which is read t.āhā and means يَا رَجُـلُ is the language of H.abashah (Abyssinia, Ethiopia), whereas in another report by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, also from Ibn ‘Abbās, it is in the Nabatean language. Similarly, يـس which is read yā-sīn meaning "O human being" is the language of T.ayy according to Ibn ‘Abbās (or H.abashah as reported by Ibn Mardawayh). The letter ن which is read nūn is a Persian word أنون meaning اصْنَعُ مَا شِئْتُ ("I do whatever I want") according to al-D.ah.h.āk as reported by al-Kirmānī.[14]
Another group of scholars claim that the interpretation of al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah is known to Allah alone. ‘Āmir al-Sha‘bī, Sufyān al-Thawrī, and a group of traditionists are reported to have said that these letters "...are Allah's secret in the Qur’ān, and Allah has a secret in each of His Books. They are included among ambiguous things (الْمُتَشَابِهَات) known to Allah alone, which is not to be talked about, but to be believed and read as they are revealed".[15] It is also reported that Abū Bakr and ‘Alī held the same view, and Abū ’l-Layth al-Samarqandī reports that ‘Umar, ‘Uthmān, and Ibn Mas‘ūd say that the al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah are among the hidden things upon which no commentary should be given. Abū H.ātim says that these letters are found in the opening of some sūrahs, but what Allah means by them is not for us to know. Another scholar, Abū Bakr al-Anbārī, says that there are letters in the Qur’ān the meaning of which are hidden from the whole world as a test from Allah; whoever believes in them will be rewarded and be pleased, and those who disbelieve and doubt them will become sinful and be far away (from Allah's guidance). [16]
According to the contemporary scholar Dr. Mus.t.afá Zayd, the most acceptable view on this subject is that these letters are a symbol of challenge; with them Allah challenged the Arab idolaters to produce a chapter similar to that of the Qur’ān by using the same letters of the alphabet used in the Qur’ān, if they kept rejecting the Qur’ān as a revelation from Him. These fourteen letters are half and representing the whole twenty-eight letters of the alphabet. They are found at the beginning of the sūrahs which speak about the Qur’ān, either at the beginning or in the middle of the respective sūrahs.[17]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the view of scholars who consider these al-h.urūf al-muqat.t.a‘ah to be mysterious and inexplicable. This is most probably due to his conviction that the ta’wīl of the mutashābihāt are known by the al-rāsikhūn fī ’l-‘ilm, as mentioned earlier in the second chapter of this study.
The Orientalists have many different theories about these mysterious letters. Noldeke's theory which he later abandoned is that they are the names of the owners of the sheets of the Qur’ān. He states that الر stands for al-Zubayr, المر stands for al-Mughīrah, طـه stands for T.alh.ah ibn ‘Ubayd Allāh, and حـم as well as letter ن stands for ‘Abd al-Rah.mān.[18]
Another Orientalist, Morris Seale, suggests that they are mnemonic devices as a guide to the contents of the sūrah. For example, in sūrat al-Shu‘arā’ (Poets, Q. 26) and sūrat al-Qas.as. (Story, Q. 28), the first verse in these two chapters is the combination of letters طسـم . These letters stand for T.ūr Sinā’ (Mount Sinai) and Mūsá (Moses), the two main subjects of these sūrahs. In sūrat Maryam (Mary, Q. 19) the first verse is the combination of letters كهيعص . These five letters, as suggested by Seale, are introductory letters to the contents of this chapter: the priest Zacharia (Zakarīyā), the temple, the birth of John (Yah.yá), Jesus son of Mary (‘Īsá ibn Maryam) and Abraham as “a man of truth”صِدِّيْق) ). Each letter stands for these five contents. ك stands for كَاهِن (a priest in the Hebrew sense rather than in Arabic sense of a soothsayer), referring to Zakarīyā; هـ stands for هَيْكَل (a temple, although the word mih.rāb is used in this sūrah); ي stands for يَحْيَ; ع stands for عِيْسَى ; and ص stands for صِدِّيْق who was Abraham. Seale admits that this is only a conjecture.[19]
James A. Bellamy had another theory. He proposed that these letters "were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, some of which became corrupt early in the course of transmission". He assumes that since only the readers of Kūfah who regarded يس , حـم, and حم عسق as āyāt (Qur’ānic verses) with the exclusion of other groups of letters, whereas the non-Kūfan readers did not call any of them an āyah (a verse), but rather introductions to the sūrahs ,[20] they are, like the basmalah, not part of the Qur’ān. Then to suit his theory, traditions mentioning these mysterious letters are rejected, and the occurrence of corruption in the Qur’ān is assumed.[21]
In my view, when the non-Kūfan readers did not call these letters āyāt, but fawātih. suwar, it is because they are not sufficient to make a word to constitute an āyah, as the minimum requirement for an āyah is one word. The point of the discussion is whether the possibility of a word, let alone a letter, can constitute an āyah. Here Ibn al-Munayyar and Abū ‘Amr al-Dānī said that there is no word which is itself an āyah in the Qur’ān except مُدْهَامَّتِان (Q. 55:64), and that al-Zamakhsharī says that knowing the āyāt is based on tawqīf (revelation), and there is no room for qiyās (analogy) in it.[22] Moreover, when al-Suyūt.ī said that they agreed onيَاأَيُّهَا اْلمُدَّثِّر as an āyah, but disagreed on [يَا أَيُّهَا اْلمُزَّمِّل [23, it does not mean that the latter is not a part of the Qur’ān, but rather it is not sufficient to be counted as one āyah.
Bellamy's theory is not plausible, either. He incorrectly developed the interpretation of Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr that these mysterious letters are Allah's names, such as الر, حم and ن, the combination of which makes الرَّحْمَن (al-Rah.mān(, one of the names of Allah and His attributes.[24] Since only four out of the nineteen letters of the basmalah do not belong to Allah's names, he builds his theory that these mysterious letters were originally abbreviations of the basmalah, as mentioned earlier.
Montgomery Watt, after explaining and evaluating various theories of some Orientalists, such as Hirschfeld, Edward Goossens, Nöldeke and Alan Jones, admitted to the mysterious nature of these letters. He concluded: "We end where we began; the letters are mysterious, and have so far baffled interpretation."[25]
B. Words which Have Many Different Meanings
This subject is usually treated as one of the branches of the sciences of tafsīr called al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir fī ’l-Qur’ān, usually translated as "homonyms and synonyms in the Qur’ān". Wujūh (sing. wajh, "face", "meaning", "aspect") are words which agree in wording but differ in meaning (مَا اتَّفَقَ لَفْظُـهُ وَاخْتَلَفَ مَعْنَاه); for example, the word s.alāh in the verse وَيُقِيمُونَ الصَّلَاةَ (البقرة : ٣) "and are constant in prayer" (Q. 2:3) has a different meaning from s.alāh in the following verse: قَالُوا يَا شُعَيْبُ أَصَلَاتُكَ تَأْمُرُكَ أَنْ نَتْرُكَ مَا يَعْبُدُ آَبَاؤُنَا (هود : ٨٧) "Said they: 'O Shu‘ayb! Does thy [habit of] praying compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,..." (Q. 11:87). In the first verse s.alāh means the established and obligatory prayer, whereas in the second, Shu‘ayb's s.alāh means his religion. [26]
Naz.ā’ir (sing. naz.īr, similar, equivalent, matching) are al-alfāz. al-mushtarikah, namely, words which indicate many different things equally, such as the word ‘ayn which equally means "eye", "spring" (the place where water comes out from the ground), "the sun itself", and "letter ع". They also include al-alfāz. al-mutawat.i’ah (Latin: denoteta; sing. denotatum), namely, words that indicate many different things with one shared meaning, such as the word insān (man) which is applied to Zayd, ‘Umar, etc. Synonymous words (al-alfāz. al-mutarādifah) are also included in the naz.ā’ir, such as the words khamr, rāh., and ‘aqqār, which all mean one thing, the intoxicant made from raisins. Wujūh refers to a word with many different meanings, whereas naz.ā’ir refers to a word with the same concept but different wordings.[27]
This branch of science is very important in studying the Qur’ān. Abū ’l-Dardā’ and Muqātil ibn Sulaymān were reported to have said that a man would not become a true faqīh until he knew the wujūh in the Qur’ān.[28] Al-Zarkashī ranked it number four among the forty-seven branches of Qur’ānic science in his work al-Burhān, whereas al-Suyūt.ī placed it at number thrity-nine of the eighty branches in his work al-Itqān.
Among the scholars of this branch of science were: Muh.ammad ibn al-Sā’ib al-Kalbī (d. 146/763), Muqātil ibn Sulaymān al-Balkhī (d. 150/767), Abū al-‘Abbās Muh.ammad ibn Yazīd ibn al-Mubarrad (d. 285/898), Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Naqqāsh (d. 351/962), Abū al-Fad.l Bakr ibn Muh.ammad al-Bukhārī (d. 514/1120-1), Ah.mad ibn Fāris (d. 395/1005), Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-H.usayn al-Dāmaghānī (d. 478/1085-6), Abū ’l-H.asan ‘Alī al-Zaghwānī (d. 527/1133), Ibn al-Jawzī (d. 597/1201) and Abū ’l-Fad.l Hubaysh [al-]Tiflīsī (from Tiflis or Tbilisi, the capital of the present Republic of Georgia; d. 600/1204 or 629/1232).
Ibn Qutaybah mentions forty-four words which have many different meanings or wujūh in his Ta’wīl. These words and their meanings are as follows:
1. اْلقَضَـاء (decree)
The basic or primary meaning of qad.ā’ is "finishing something entirely, either by word or by deed". [29] Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of the verb qad.á which is derived from the mas.dar (verbal noun) qad.ā’, as follows:
a. حَـتَمَ (to decree, to ordain) which is the basic meaning of qad.á, as in فَيُمْسِكُ الَّتِي قَضَى عَلَيْهَا الْمَوْتَ (الزمر : ٤٢)"... thus, He withholds [from life] those upon whom He has decreed death,..." (Q. 39:42).[30]
b. أَمَـرَto order, to command), as in وَقَضَى رَبُّكَ أَلَّا تَعْبُدُوا إِلَّا إِيَّاهُ (الإسراء : ٢٣) "For thy Sustainer has ordered that you shall worship none but Him." (Q. 17:23).[31] This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan, and Qatādah, according to al-T.abarsī.[32] According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, who mentions ten meanings of قَضَى, this term in the above verse means وَصَّى (entrust, direct, recommend, charge, enjoin). [33] This is also the view of the Mujāhid, based on the variant readings of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b, Ibn Mas‘ūd and al-D.ah.h.āk.[34]
c. أَعْـلَمَ (to inform), as in وَقَضَيْنَا إِلَى بَنِي إِسْرَائِيلَ فِي الْكِتَابِ لَتُفْسِدُنَّ فِي الْأَرْضِ مَرَّتَيْنِ وَلَتَعْلُنَّ عُلُوًّا كَبِيرًا (الإسراء : ٤) "And We made [this] known to the children of Israel through revelation: 'Twice, indeed, will you spread corruption on earth and will indeed become grossly overbearing.’" (Q. 17:4). This view of Ibn Qutaybah is also that of Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Farrā’, al-T.abarsī, Ibn Kathīr, al-Suyūt.ī, and Yahyá ibn Sallām, who uses the termأَخْبَرَ, the synonym of [35] أَعْلَمَ. Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī maintain that since Allah informed the children of Israel that they would commit corruption in the future, its occurrence was a decree from Him. [36]
d. صَـنَعَ (to make, to do), as in فَقَضَاهُنَّ سَبْعَ سَمَوَاتٍ (حم : ١٢)" And He [it is Who] made them completely seven heavens." (Q. 41:12).[37] Then the meaning eveloped and became "to accomplish, to complete, to fulfil". The dead person is called قَضَى أَجَلَه he has completed his appointed time", and قَضَى نَحْبَه “he has fulfilled (redeemed) his pledge (by death)." (Q. 33:23).[38]
2. اْلهُـدَى (guidance)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of hudá, as follows:
a. أَرْشَـدَ (to guide), which is the basic meaning of hudá , as in قَالَ عَسَى رَبِّي أَنْ يَهْدِيَنِي سَوَاءَ السَّبِيلِ (القصص : ٢٢) "... he said [to himself]: 'It may well be that my Sustainer will [thus] guide me onto the right path!'" (Q. 28:22),[39] namely, the road to Madyan. [40]
b. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْبَـَيان (to guide by means of explanation), as in وَأَمَّا ثَمُودُ فَهَدَيْنَاهُمْ فَاسْتَحَبُّوا الْعَمَى عَلَى الْهُدَى (حم : ١٧) "And as for [the tribe of] Thamūd, We offered them guidance [by means of explanation], but they chose blindness in preference to the guidance:..." (Q. 41:17).[41] According to Qatādah fahadaynāhum means "We have explained to them the way to virtue as well as evil," whereas according to Ibn ‘Abbās, al-Suddī and Ibn Zayd it means "We have explained to them the truth." [42]
c. أَرْشـَدَ بِالدُّعـَاء (to guide by means of calling), as in إِنَّمَا أَنْتَ مُنْذِرٌ وَلِكُلِّ قَوْمٍ هَادٍ (الرعد : ٧) ".... Thou art a warner only; and for every folk a guide." (Q. 13:7, Pickthall).[43] The guide meant in this verse is Allah according to Ibn ‘Abbās, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, al-D.ah.h.āk and Mujāhid, whereas according to Qatādah, al-Zajjāj, Ibn Zayd and Ibn ‘Abbās in another report, it is a prophet sent to his people. Another view says that a guide here means any person who calls people to the truth. [44]
d. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْإلْهـَام (to guide by means of inspiration), as in قَالَ رَبُّنَا الَّذِي أَعْطَى كُلَّ شَيْءٍ خَلْقَهُ ثُمَّ هَدَى (طه : ٥٠) "He replied: Our Sustainer is He Who gives unto everything [that exists] its true nature and form, and thereupon guides it." (Q. 20:50), namely, by means of inspiration.[45] Muh.ammad Asad translates khalqahu as "its true nature and form", and Ibn Qutaybah, giving his commentary on it, said that it means "its form from the females (of its species)", namely, every creature is created and formed inside its mother's womb according to her species. The inspiration meant in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah, Ibn ‘Abbās, al-Suddī and al-Farrā’, is the sexual instinct among creatures towards their own species.[46] However, Ibn Qutaybah also mentions another interpretation, namely, "the inspiration to look for pasture and to avoid danger (طَلَبُ الْمَرْعَى وَ تَوَقِّى اْلمَهَالِك)". This is similar to the view of Tiflīsī and al-Suyūt.ī when they said that hadá in the above verse means "the inspiration to look for food".[47] The third interpretation is that of Mujāhid, ‘At.ā’, Muqātil, and Yah.yá ibn Sallām which is a combination of the two previous interpretations. [48]
In the following verse وَالَّذِي قَدَّرَ فَهَدَى (الأعلى : ٣) “and Who determines the nature [of all that exists], and thereupon guides it [towards its fulfilment]" (Q. 87:3) the guidance in this verse according to Ibn Qutaybah is the inspiration to approach the females, namely, the sexual instinct. This is also the view of Muqātil, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Kalbī, al-Farrā’ and Tiflīsī.[49] In my view, the meaning of hadá in this type of Qur’anīc verse is the natural instinct given to every creature to preserve its life and species in particular, and to fulfil its nature in general, because it includes both views mentioned above.
e. أَرْشَـدَ بِالْإمْضَـاء (to guide by means of doing), as in (يوسف : ٥٢) وَأَنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَهْدِي كَيْدَ الْخَائِنِينَ “... and that Allah does not bless with His guidance the artful schemes of those who betray their trust." (Q. 12:52). It means that Allah will not make the artful schemes of the betrayers work. Another interpretation is that it means Allah will not make it proper for them. [50]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions twenty-four meanings of hadá in his work Nuzhah, but mentions fourteen only in his work Qurrah. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Zarkashī, al-Suyūt.ī, and Tiflīsī mention seventeen meanings, whereas al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn Qutaybah mention respectively sixteen and four meanings. Ibn Qutaybah deals with this word very briefly: less than one-fifth of the total number of its meanings.[51]
3. اْلأُمَّـة (nation, people, community)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us five meanings of ummah as follows:
a. الصِّنْفُ مِنَ النَّـاِس وَ الْجَمَـاعَة (a category of people, a community), which is the basic meaning of the term ummah, as in كَانَ النَّاسُ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً فَبَعَثَ اللَّهُ النَّبِيِّينَ (البقرة : ٢١٣) "All mankind were once a single community; [then they began to differ] whereupon Allah raised up the prophets..." (Q.2:213). According to Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Jawzī, ummah here means millah (religion); al-T.abarsī says ummah wāh.idah means ‘alá millah wāh.idah (belonging to one religion), whereas al-Zamakhsharī does not interpret ummah, probably retaining its basic meaning as mentioned above. A question arises: what religion did people embrace in the above verse? It was the true religion (Islam), according to Ibn ‘Abbās in one report, Qatādah, Mujāhid, ‘Ikrmah and al-D.ah.h.āk; this is the interpretation chosen by Tiflīsī and Ibn Kathīr. This view is supported with ‘Abd Allāh ibn Mas‘ūd's - or, according to Ibn Kathīr, Ubayy ibn Ka‘b's - variant reading kāna ’l-nāsu ummatan wāh.idatan fa’khtalafū with the addition of fa’khtalafū ("then they disagreed"). The other interpretation is that the community in the above verse followed disbelief; this is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās in another report and also that of al-H.asan. This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī when they say that ummah wāh.idah means s.infan wāh.idan fī ’l-d.alāl ("a kind of people in error").[52]
b. اْلحِـْين (a period of time), as in وَادَّكَرَ بَعْدَ أُمَّةٍ (يوسف : ٤٥) "... and he [suddenly] remembered [Joseph] after a (long) period of time..." (Q. 12:45).[53] This period was said to have been seven years.[54] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan, Mujāhid, and Qatādah.[55] This period of time can mean "years", as inوَلَئِنْ أَخَّرْنَا َنْهُمُ الْعَذَابَ إِلَى أُمَّةٍ مَعْدُودَةٍ (هود : ٨) “And if We defer their suffering until a reckoned period of time..." (Q. 11:8). It means reckoned years.[56] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the term ummah meaning “years” in the above verse is the language of Azdshanū’ah, one of the four branches of Azd, an ancient Arab tribe living in Yemen.[57] Tiflīsī shares Ibn Qutaybah's view on the two verses above.[58] Ibn al-Jawzī, however, says that the word ummah in the above verses means "a period of time" which is contrary to the view of al-Dāmaghānī who says that it means in both verses "years." [59] However, a variant reading attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, ‘Ikrīmah and al-D.ah.h.āk is ba‘da amahin and ba‘da amhin, meaning "after forgetting" [60] (بَعْدَ نِسْيَان). According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the term ummah meaning nisyān (“forgetting”) in the above verse is the language of Tamīm and Qays (ibn) ‘Aylān. [61]
c. الإمَـام (leader, chief, head and commander), as in إِنَّ إِبْرَاهِيمَ كَانَ أُمَّةً قَانِتًا لِلَّهِ (النحل : ١٢٠) “Verily, Abraham was a leader, obedient to Allah,..." (Q. 16:120). This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and Abū ‘Ubaydah as well as Qatādah according to Yah.yá ibn Sallām.[62] This is also the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[63] It means people followed his examples. Prophet Abraham was referred to as ummah because he and the people who followed him constituted a community, so that he was the founder of that ummah. It is also said that he was called an ummah because he possessed the good qualities of an ummah. He was an ummah himself, as he represented an ummah. [64] He was the only believer when other people disbelieved; therefore he was an ummah, and this is the view of Mujāhid. Another view is that he was an ummah because he was an example and a teacher to the people. [65]
According to Ibn Mas‘ūd and Ibn ‘Umar the term ummah means respectively "the person who teaches good things" (مُعَلِّمُ اْلخَيْر) and "the person who teaches people their religion" [66] (الَّذِيْ يُعَلِّمُ النَّاسَ دِيْنَهُمْ).
d. Despite the difference of interpretations, they all complement each other and serve to broaden the meaning of the verse.
e. جَـمَاعَةٌ مِنَ اْلعُـلَمَاء (a group of ‘ulamā’), as in َلْتَكُنْ مِنْكُمْ أُمَّةٌ يَدْعُونَ إِلَى الْخَيْرِ (آل عمران : ١٠٤) "And that there might grow out of you a group of ‘ulamā’ who teach all that is good..." (Q. 3:104). They are, according to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, a group of selected people with knowledge and good work who become examples for others.[67] There are two different views concerning meaning of the particle min in this verse: (1) lil-tab‘īd. (a partition min), namely, "some", so that the verse means that some of the Muslims should establish a group of ‘ulamā’ to teach people virtuous deeds, as this duty is fard. kifāyah, a duty that should be carried out by a group of Muslims only, in this case, the ‘ulamā’. This is the view of Ibn Qutaybah and al-Qurt.ubī; [68] (2) lil-tabyīn (an explanatory min), so that the verse means "an ummah inviting unto all that is good might grow out of you". In other words, "be an ummah that invite unto all that is good". [69]
f. الدِّيْـن (the religion), as in إِنَّا وَجَدْنَا آَبَاءَنَا عَلَى أُمَّةٍ وَإِنَّا عَلَى آَثَارِهِمْ مُقْتَدُونَ (الزخرف : ٢٣) "... Behold, we found our forefathers following one religion, and, verily, it is but in their footsteps that we follow!" (Q. 43:23).[70] Abū ‘Ubaydah interprets عَلَى أُمَّة as عَلَى مِلَّةٍ وَ اسْتِقَامَة ("following one religion and uprightness"). [71] Al-Farrā‘ and al-Zamakhsharī give also the variant reading immah beside ummah. According to al-Farrā’, ummah is the reading of the qurrā’ except Mujāhid, as well as ‘Umar ibn ‘Abd al-‘Azīz who read immah.[72] Al-Zamakhsharī states that both ummah and immah come from the root amma ("to intend"). Ummah means "the intended way", while immah means "the condition of the person who has the intention". Al-Zamakhsharī also gives us another interpretation of the term ‘alá ummah, namely,عَلَى نِعْمَةٍ وَ اسْتِقَامَة ("in good living and good condition").[73] The expression fulān lā ummata lahu means "So-and-so has no religion."[74] As a shāhid from poetry Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-Nābighah in which ummah means religion, as follows:
حَلَفْتُ فَلَمْ أَتْرُكْ لِنَفْسِكَ رِيْبَةً * وَ هَلْ يَأْثَمَنْ ذُوْ أُمَّةٍ وَ هُوَ طَائِعُ؟
“I have sworn so that I would not leave any doubt in your
mind; will the person who has a religion verily commit a sin
while he [at the same time] is obeying [his religion]?” [75]
According to Ibn Fāris, instead of ummah, it should be read immah to mean "a religion" in this poem, for ummah here means "a dominating tradition." [76] A similar expression is wa hal yastawī dhū ummah wa kafūr, meaning "And are one who has religion and one who is an infidel equal?" [77]
Originally, ummah was said of a group of people belonging to one religion, then later on was meant the religion itself, as in (المؤمنون : ٥٢) وَإِنَّ هَذِهِ أُمَّتُكُمْ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً “And verily, this religion of yours is one religion ...” (Q. 23:52).[78] This is also the interpretation of al-H.asan, Ibn Jurayj, Yah.yá ibn Sallām and Ibn Kathīr.[79]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of ummah. Ibn al-Jawzī also mentions five, while Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī mention nine, but they do not include "a group of ‘ulamā’" as one of its wujūh.
4. اْلعَهْـد (covenant)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of ‘ahd, as follows:
a. الْأَمَـان (assurance of security, safety, peace, protection) as in فَأَتِمُّوا إِلَيْهِمْ عَهْدَهُمْ إِلَى مُدَّتِهِمْ (التوبة : ٤) "...observe, then, your security with them until the end of the term agreed with them..." (Q. 9:4).[80] According to Tiflīsī the meaning of ‘ahd in this verse is amānah (loyalty),[81] whereas according to al-Suyūt.ī it means mīthāq (agreement, covenant).[82]
b. اْليَمِـيْن (oath, promise) as in وَأَوْفُوا بِعَهْدِ اللَّهِ إِذَا عَاهَدْتُمْ "and fulfil your oath with Allah when you make the oath," as the verse continues with وَلَا تَنْقُضُوا الْأَيْمَانَ بَعْدَ تَوْكِيدِهَا (النحل : ٩١) "... and do not break [your] oaths after having [freely] confirmed them..." (Q. 16:91). [83]
c. اْلوَصِـَّية (injunction, instruction, advice), as in أَلَمْ أَعْهَدْ إِلَيْكُمْ يَا بَنِي آَدَمَ أَنْ لَا تَعْبُدُوا الشَّيْطَانَ (يس : ٦٠) "Did I not enjoin you, O you children of Adam, that you should not worship Satan..." (Q. 36:60).[84]
d. الْحِـفَاظ (protection of honour), as in the h.adīth إنَّ حُسْنَ اْلعَهْدِ مِنَ اْلإْيمَان "Verily, the protection of honour is a part of faith."[85]
e. الزَّمـَان (time) as in the expression كَانَ ذَلِكَ فَي عَهْدِ فُلاَن ("That happened in the time of So-and-so").[86]
f. اْلمِيـْثَاق (agreement, covenant), as in قَالَ إِنِّي جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًا قَالَ وَمِنْ ذُرِّيَّتِي قَالَ لَا يَنَالُ عَهْدِي الظَّالِمِينَ (البقرة : ١٢٤) "... He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.' Abraham asked: 'And [wilt Thou make leaders] of my offspring as well?' [Allah] answered: 'My covenant does not embrace the evildoers.'" (Q. 2:124). It means that wrong doers among his descendants will be excluded from Allah's covenant [87] or, according to Mujāhid and Ibn al-Jawzī, will be excluded from the leadership and prophethood respectively.[88]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions seven meanings of the term ‘ahd in his work Nuzhah, whereas Ibn Qutaybah, al-Dāmaghānī, and al-Tiflīsī mentions six meanings in their respective works. Two meanings given by Ibn Qutaybah, namely, al-h.ifāz. and al-zamān, both without any example from the Qur’ān, are not included by any of the writers mentioned above.
5. الإلّ (pact, covenant; blood relationship, nearness with respect to kindred)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ill, as follows:
a. إلَـه (ilāh, Allah), as in لَا يَرْقُبُونَ فِي مُؤْمِنٍ إِلًّا وَلَا ذِمَّةً (التوبة : ١٠) "They respect neither Allah nor protective obligation with regard to a believer..." (Q. 9:10). Instead of "tie" and "pact" as translated respectively by Asad and Pickthall, the term ill here means Allah, according to Ibn Qutaybah, based on Mujāhid's interpretation. Ibn Qutaybah says that the word "ill" in "Jibrīl" - which can be read "Jibra Ill" - means "Allah".[89] Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, however, rejects the idea that ill or iyl is the name of Allah.[90] Lane mentions "lordship" (rubūbīyah) as one of the meanings of the term ill.[91] According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term ill in the above verse is qarābah (kinship, relationship) in the language of the Quraysh.[92]
Speaking of the term jabr as being among the ad.dād, al-Anbārī says that the term means a king (malik) as well as a servant (‘abd), and the word "Jabra’il" means "‘Abd Allāh" (the servant of Allah); jabr means "servant", and il or ill means al-rubūbiyyah (the lordship). He says that "Jibra Ill" is the reading of Ibn Ya‘mar. On the other hand, the term ill in the verse in question means Allah according to "some commentators". When the Muslims who were fighting Musaylimah read to Abū Bakr some verses of what Musaylimah claimed to be a revealed book, Abū Bakr said, "Verily, this is not a word which comes from God (Allah)" [93](إِنَّ هَذَا كَلامٌ لاَ يَخْرُجُ مِنْ إلّّ). In other versions Abū Bakr said: "It is indeed a statement which does not come from lordship (God)"[94] (إِنَّهُ لَكَلاَمٌ لَمْ يَخْرُجْ مِنْ إِلّ), and "This would not have come from Allah" (مَا خَرَجَ هَذَا مِنْ إِلّ). [95] According to Ibn Jinnī the word Allāh in the Nabatean language is ill. [96]
b. الرَّحِـم (kinship, relationship), as in the poem of H.assān ibn Thābit, as follows: كَإلِ السَّقْبِ فِيْ رَأْلِ النَّـعَام * لَعَمْرُكَ إنَّ إلَّكَ فِيْ قُرَيْشٍ "By thy life! Verily, thy kinship with the Quraysh tribe is like the kinship of the young camel with the young of the ostrich." This meaning of the term ill is a good one (wajh h.asan) for that term in the above verse.[97] Ibn al-Anbārī also mentions the other meanings of ill in the above verse, namely, kinship (qarābah), and treaty (h.ilf), whereas dhimmah in the above verse means covenant (‘ahd).[98]
c. اْلعَـهْد (covenant, treaty, pact), as in the above verse which is the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah.[99]
Both Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn al-Anbārī mention the three meanings of the term ill in the Qur’ān in their respective works; the former in his dealing with the term ill itself, while the latter when dealing with the term jabr as having two opposite meanings. However, the latter gives us more details of it. Al-Zamakhsharī also dealt with the term. However, al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Tiflīsī and al-Qurtubī did not include this term in their works.[100]
6. اْلقُنـُوْت (obedience)
The basic meaning of qunūt is "obedience", then the meaning developed into "standing in prayer". The most common meaning of qunūt in Arabic language is the du‘ā’ (supplication) to Allah while standing. However, the term is also applicable to any other act of obedience, even the nīyah (intention) of doing it.[101] This is also the view of Ibn Qutaybah who confirms that the basic meaning of qunūt is "obedience to Allah"; other meanings, such as "prayer", "standing in prayer", and "supplication" are derived from it.[102] According to al-Tabarsī, the term also means "the continuance of doing a particluar thing" (الدَّوَامُ عَلَى أَمْرٍ وَاحِد).[103]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of qunūt, as follows:
a. اْلقِـَيام (standing). The prayer is called qunūt because it is performed while standing. When the Prophet was asked: "What is the most excellent characteristic of the act of prayer?", he answered: طُـوْلُ اْلقُنُوْت "the long continuance of the standing (in prayer)".[104] The example from the Qur’ān is أَمَّنْ هُوَ قَانِتٌ آَنَاءَ اللَّيْلِ سَاجِدًا وَقَائِمًا يَحْذَرُ الْآَخِرَةَ وَيَرْجُو رَحْمَةَ رَبِّهِ (الزمر : ٩) "Or [dost thou deem thyself equal to] one who stands [in prayer] throughout the night, prostrating himself or standing, ever-mindful of the life to come, and hoping for his Sustainer's grace?" (Q. 39:9)[105].
According to some commentators, this verse also indicates that the qunūt means not only standing in the prayer, but also the khushū‘ (submissiveness) in it.[106] Ibn Qutaybah also cites a h.adīth stating that the similarity of the mujāhid (the person who strives in the path of Allah) is like a person who performs prayer while fasting [107](مَثَلُ اْلمُجَاهِدِيْنَ فِيْ سَبِيْلِ اللهِ كَمَثَلِ اْلقَانِتِ الصَّائِم). The h.adīth was reported by Muslim and Ah.mad on the authority of Abū Hurayrah.
b. الدُّعَـاء (supplication), since it is cited while one is standing in prayer before or after bowing (ruku’). No example from the Qur’ān is given.
c. الإمْسَـاكُ فِي الصَّـلاَة (restraint from talking while standing in prayer), except from reciting the verses of the Qur’ān. Zayd ibn Arqam was reported to have said: "We used to talk while we were [standing] in prayer until it was revealed وَقُومُوا لِلَّهِ قَانِتِينَ (البقرة : ٢٣٨) ‘... and stand before Allah [in prayer] restraining from talking'." (Q. 2:238).[108] This is also the view of Mujāhid when he says that qānitīn in this verse means being at a standstill and refraining hands and sight from wandering.[109] However, it is also possible that qānitīn in this verse means "obeying"; this is also the view of al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī.[110]
d. اْلإقْرَارُ بِالْعُبُوْدِيَّة (the affirmation of one's serfdom), as in وَلَهُ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ كُلٌّ لَهُ قَانِتُونَ (الروم : ٢٦) "For, unto Him belongs every being that is in the heavens and on earth; all things affirm their serfdom to Him." (Q. 30:26).[111]
e. الطَّاعَـة (obedience), as in وَالْقَانِتِينَ وَالْقَانِتَاتِ (الأحزاب : ٣٥) "... And the obedient men and the obedient women..." (Q. 33:35, Lane).[112] Al-T.abarsī mentions two meanings of قَانِتِيْن andقَانِتَات in the said verse, i.e., "the men who keep on doing good deeds", and "the women who keep on doing good deeds," and "the men who supplicate" and "the women who supplicate." [113] These five meanings of qunūt are also mentioned by al-Suyūt.ī.[114]
7. الدِّيْـن (recompense)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dīn, as follows:
a. اْلجَـزَاء (recompense), as in مَالِكِ يَوْمِ الدِّينِ (الفاتحة : ٤) "Lord of the Day of Recompense [and of Punishment (al-qas.as.)]. (Q. 1:4)[115] The Arabs say كَمَا تَدِيْنُ تُدَان meaning "you will be rewarded (compensated) according to your deed" or "people will do to you as you do to them". [116]
b. اْلمُلْكُ وَ السُّلْطَان (supreme authority and power), as the Arabs say دِنْتُ اْلقَوْمَ أَدِيْنُهُمْ فَدَانُوْا "I conquered the people, I subdue them, so they submitted." Therefore, the verse وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ لِلَّهِ (البقرة: ١٩٣) and وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ كُلُّهُ لِلَّهِ (الأنفال : ٣٩), respectively means "and the supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 2:193), and "the whole supreme authority belongs to Allah" (Q. 8:39). [117] Ibn Kathīr and al-Zamakhsharī, however, mention "the religion of Islam" as the meaning of dīn in the above verse, whereas al-T.abarsī gives "obedience". [118]
c. الطَّاعَة (obedience), as in (التوبة : ٢٩ ) وَلَا يَدِينُونَ دِينَ الْحَقِّ "... and [they] do not follow the religion of truth" (Q. 9:29) which means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Abū ‘Ubaydah, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī, "[they] do not obey [Allah] with true obedience" [119]( وَلاَيُطِيْعُوْنَ [الله]طَاعَةَ الْحَقّ)
d. اْلحِسَاب (reckoning), as in ذَلِكَ الدِّينُ الْقَيِّمُ (التوبة : ٣٦) "... that is the right reckoning." (Q. 9:36)[120] It means that the four sacred months - Muh.arram, Rajab, Dhū ’l-Qa‘dah and Dhū ’l-H.ijjah during which warfare was prohibited in pre-Islamic Arabia - in one year is the right reckoning. However, al-Zamakhsharī's interpretation of the term dīn is "religion", so the above verse means that the sacredness of the four months is the upright religion, the religion of Abraham and Ishmael.[121] With regard to the term dāna in the following h.adīth, الْكَيِّسُ مَنْ دَانَ نَفْسَهُ وَعَمِلَ لِمَا بَعْدَ اْلمَوْت (رواه لبترمذي و ابن ماجة و أحمد) Lane mentions three various interpretations, as follows: "The intelligent is he who (1) abases, and enslaves himself, (2) who reckons himself, or (3) who overcomes himself, and works for that which shall be after death." [122]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of dīn, whereas al-Dāmaghānī as well as al-Suyūt.ī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention five, six and ten respectively. With the exception of Ibn Qutaybah, they mention the term dīn in the Qur’ān which means "religion" - (millah) according to al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī, dīn al-islām bi‘aynih (the religion of Islam itself) according to al-Tiflīsī - among which is as follows: وَيُقِيمُوا الصَّلَاةَ وَيُؤْتُوا الزَّكَاةَ وَذَلِكَ دِينُ الْقَيِّمَةِ (البينة : ٥) "... and to establish worship and to pay the poor-due. That is the true religion." (Q. 98:5).[123] Ibn Qutaybah does not deal with dīn which means religion here probably because it is easy to identify, such as in the verse إِنَّ الدِّينَ عِنْدَ اللَّهِ الْإِسْلَامُ (أل عمران : ١٩) "Lo! religion with Allah (is) Islam" (Q. 3: 19).
8. اْلمَـوْلَى (master, client, kinsfolk)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of mawlá as follows:
a. اْلمُعْـتِق (al-mu‘tiq, manumitter of slaves). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah.
b. اْلمُعْـَتق (al-mu‘taq, client, freed slave). No example is given by Ibn Qutaybah, but Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give us the following example: فَإِنْ لَمْ تَعْلَمُوا آَبَاءَهُمْ فَإِخْوَانُكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَمَوَالِيكُمْ (الأحزاب : ٥) “....And if you know not who their fathers were, [call them] your brethren in faith and your clients." (Q. 33:5).[124]
c. عَصَبَةُ الرَّجُل (man's paternal relative, kinsman), as in وَإِنِّي خِفْتُ الْمَوَالِيَ مِنْ وَرَائِي (مريم : ٥) "Now, behold, I am afraid of [what] my kinsfolk [will do] after I am gone,..." (Q.19:5, Asad). [125] Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Anbārī interpret mawālī in this verse as "paternal cousins" (بَنُوْا اْلعَـمّ), whereas al-Tiflīsī inteprets it as "inheritors" [126] (وَرَثَة).
d. اْلمَـْولَى (guardian, patron, protector), whether a relative or not.The example of the relative mawlá is the Prophet's following statement: أَيُّمَا امْرَأَةٍ نَكَحَتْ بِغَيْرِ أَمْرِ مَوْلَاهَا فَنِكاَحُهَا بَاطِل “Any woman who marries without the consent of her guardian her marriage is void." [127] The example of the non-relative mawlá is as follows ذَلِكَ بِأَنَّ اللَّهَ مَوْلَى الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَأَنَّ الْكَافِرِينَ لَا مَوْلَى لَهُمْ (محمد : ١١) “This, because God is the Protector of all who have attained to faith, whereas they who deny the truth have no protector." (Q. 47:11, Asad). [128] According to al-Dāmaghānī and al-Dāmaghānī the term mawlá in this verse means rabb (Master, Lord).[129] The example of the mawlá who is either a relative or not, is as follows: يَوْمَ لَا يُغْنِي مَوْلًى عَنْ مَوْلًى شَيْئًا (الدخان : ٤١) "The Day when no guardian shall be of the least avail to his friend,..." (Q. 44:41), namely, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, the day when the help of a guardian, whether he is a relative or not, is of no avail.[130]
e. الْحَلِـْيف (ally), as in the poem of al-Nābighah al-Ja‘dī when he said: مَوَالِيَ حِلْفٍ لَا مَوَالِيَ قَرَابَةٍ "(They are) mawālī of alliance, not of kinship," namely, they are allies and not kinsfolk or, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, paternal cousins.[131]
f. أَوْلىَ بِالشَّيْء (have a higher claim, more entitled to), as in النَّبِيُّ أَوْلَى بِالْمُؤْمِنِينَ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ (الأحزاب : ٦) "The Prophet has a higher claim on the believers than [they have on] their own selves,..." (Q. 33:6, Asad). It means that the Prophet is more entitled to be obeyed by the believers than they are by their own selves.[132]
According to al-Farrā’, the above verse was revealed to disprove the practice of Muslims in making brotherhood among themselves, so that they can inherit from each other, like natural brothers, instead of giving the inheritance to their relatives and families. Therefore, it was revealed that the Prophet is closer to them than themselves, and yet, they cannot inherit from him, let alone inherit from their adopted brothers.[133] In another report it is said that when the Prophet ordered people to join him in the campaign of Tabūk, a group of people said that they would first ask their parents' permission; then the above verse was revealed.[134]
The term mawlá, as we have seen, belongs to the category of ad.dād. It means "the person who frees a slave" as well as "the freed slave". It has many other meanings in the Qur’ān. Ibn Qutaybah and Tiflīsī mention six meanings of mawlá, while Ibn al-Anbārī and al-Suyūt.ī mentions nine and eight meanings respectively. Al-Dāmaghānī, in dealing with the term walī gives us five meanings of each walī and mawlá, while Ibn al-Jawzī does not mention this term in his works Nuzhah and Qurrah . [135]
9. الضَّلاَل (straying)
The basic meaning of d.alāl is "straying" which is the opposite of "guidance".[136] Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of d.alāl, as follows:
a. اْلحِيْرَةُ وَالْعُدُوْلُ عَنِ الْحَقِّ وَالطَّرِيْق (confusion and abandoning the truth or losing or straying from the right way),[137] as in وَوَجَدَكَ ضَالًّا فَهَدَى (الضحى : ٧) "And found thee lost on thy way, and guided thee?" (Q. 93:7, Asad). [138]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions two different meanings of the term d.alāl in the above verse: "forgetting", which is the view of Tha‘lab, and "straying", upon which five interpretations are given: (a) the Prophet's straying from the characteristics of prophethoodمَعَالِمُ النُّبُوَّّة) ), which is the view of al-H.asan and al-D.ah.h.āk; (b) his straying at the mountain paths of Makkah when he was a small boy, and Allah brought him back to his grand-father ‘Abd al-Mut.t.alib, which is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās; (c) his straying when the the halter (nose rope) of his camel which was carrying Khadījah's goods to Syria was taken one day by Iblis and led astray, then Jibrīl came to rescue and led it back to the caravan, which is the view of Sa‘īd ibn al-Musayyab; (d) his being among straying people, and Allah guided him, which is the view of Ibn al-Sā’ib, al-Farrā’, and al-Kisā’ī; and (e) his being undistinguished and unknown, and Allah guided people to him, so that they knew him well, and this is the view of ‘Abd al-‘Azīz ibn Yah.yá and Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alī al-Tirmidhī.[139]
b. النِّسْـيَان (forgetfulness), as in فَإِنْ لَمْ يَكُونَا رَجُلَيْنِ فَرَجُلٌ وَامْرَأَتَانِ مِمَّنْ تَرْضَوْنَ مِنَ الشُّهَدَاءِ أَنْ تَضِلَّ إِحْدَاهُمَا فَتُذَكِّرَ إِحْدَاهُمَا الْأُخْرَى (البقرة : ٢٨٢) "And if two men are not available, then a man and two women from among such as are acceptable to you as witnesses, so that if one of them should forget, the other could remind her." (Q. 2:282). This interpretation is according to that of Ibn Qutaybah, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’.[140]
c. اْلهَلَكَةُ وَاْلبُطْلاَن (annihilation and voidness), as in وَقَالُوا أَئِذَا ضَلَلْنَا فِي الْأَرْضِ أَئِنَّا لَفِي خَلْقٍ جَدِيدٍ (السجدة : ١٠) "And they say: 'What! After we have been annihilated and become united with the earth, shall we indeed be [restored to life] in a new act of creation?'" (Q. 32:10). [141] Similar interpretations are also given by Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Farrā’, Ibn Kathīr, al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī. [142]
As we have seen Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings only of d.alāl. Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention respectively seven, eight and ten meanings, among which are jahl (ignorance) and khusrān (loss).[143]
10. الإمَـام (leader)
Four meanings of imām are cited by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. مَا ائْتَمَمَتَ بِه (the person whose example you follow), which is the basic meaning of imām, as in (البقرة : ١٢٤) قَالَ إِنِّي جَاعِلُكَ لِلنَّاسِ إِمَامًا"He said: 'Behold, I shall make thee a leader of men.'" (Q. 2:124, Asad). [144]
b. اْلكِتَـاب (the book recording the deeds of mankind in this world), as in يَوْمَ نَدْعُوا كُلَّ أُنَاسٍ بِإِمَامِهِمْ (الإسراء : ٧١) "On the day We shall summon all men with their record [namely, the book containing the records of their deeds], ..." (Q. 17:71, Pickthall). [145] Al-T.abarsī mentions five interpretations of the term imām in the said verse: (1) of Ibn ‘Abbās according to one report, al-H.asan and Abū al-‘Āliyah, as mentioned above; (2) of Ibn Zayd and al-D.ah.h.āk, the revealed book, i.e., it will be called "O people of the Qur’ān, O people of the Torah..." (3) of Mujāhid and Qatādah, the prophet of people, i.e., it will be proclaimed "Bring forth the followers of Abraham, the followers of Moses, and of Muh.ammad;" they will come forward and will take their books in their right hands; then it will be summoned: "Bring forward the followers of Satan and misguiding leaders"; this is another interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās as reported by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr; (4) of al-Jubbā’ī and Abū ‘Ubaydah, the ‘ulamā’ and leaders followed by people; [146] and (5) of Muh.ammad ibn Ka‘b, who mistook imām for ummahāt ("mothers") as plural for umm ("a mother"). [147]
c. اللَّوْحُ اْلمَحْفُوْظ (The Preserved Tablet), as in وَكُلَّ شَيْءٍ أَحْصَيْنَاهُ فِيْ إِمَامٍ مُبِيْن (يس: ١٢) "... for all things do We take account in a clear Preserved Tablet." (Q. 36:12). [148]
d. الطَّـرِيْق (the way), as in وَإِنَّهُمَا لَبِإِمَامٍ مُبِيْن (الحجر:٧٩) "... and behold, both these [sinful communities] are on a clear way" (Q. 15:79) which is the interpretation of Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, al-H.asan, Qatādah, al-Farrā’, Ibn Qutaybah and al-Zamakhsharī.[149] However, the term imām in this verse also means kitāb (record) in the Quraysh language according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[150] Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation of the term imām in this verse is that it is anything we follow and through which we are guided. [150]
11. الصَّـلاَة (prayer)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings for s.alāh, as follows:
a. الدُّعـَاء (supplication, prayer) as in وَ صَلٍّ عَلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ صَـلَاَتكَ سَكَنٌ لَهُم (التوبة: ١٠٣) "..., and pray for them: behold, thy prayer will be [a source of] comfort to them...." (Q. 9:103, Asad). [152]
b. الرَّحْمَةُ وَ اْلمَغْفِرَة (blessing and forgiveness), as in إِنَّ اللهَ وَ مَلائِكَتَهُ يُصَلُّوْنَ عَليَ النَّبِيّ (الأحزاب: ٥٦) "Verily, Allah and His angels bless and forgive the Prophet [namely, the angels ask Allah blessings and forgiveness on him] ..." (Q. 33:56).[153] Instead of al-maghfirah, al-Suyūt.ī mentions al-istighfār. [154] . Both al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī mention the meaning of s.alāh as al-maghfirah wa ’l-istighfār, namely, forgiveness from Allah, and asking forgiveness from His angels and men. [155] Al-Zamakhsharī mentions al-rah.mah wa ’l-ra’fah (mercy) as the meaning of al-s.alāh in the above verse.[156] According to Tiflīsī, the expression يُصَلُّوْن means يُحَيُّوْنَه ("they greet him").[157] S.alāh from Allah is His mercy to the Prophet, whereas from the angels is du‘ā’ and istighfār for him. [158]
c. الدِّيْـن (religion), as in (٨٧:ﻫﻮﺩ) قَالُوْا يَا شُعَيْبُ أَصَلاتُكَ تَأْمُرُكَ أَنْ نَتْرُكَ مَا يَعْبُدُ آبَاؤُنَا "Said they: O Shu‘ayb! Does thy religion compel thee to demand of us that we give up all that our forefathers were wont to worship,...?" (Q. 11:87).[159] This is the interpretation of al-H.asan, ‘At.ā’ and Abū Muslim. However, s.alāh in the said verse can also mean the established prayer itself, and this is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās.[160] Prophet Shu‘ayb was said to perform prayers very often. While praying, his people winked at each other and laughed. They asked him sarcastically whether his prayers were the motive for asking them to abandon their idols which had been worshipped by their ancestors.[161]
Ibn Qutaybah does not give us the other meanings of s.alāh, such as the five daily prayers (Q. 2:3), the congregational Friday prayer (Q. 62:9), the reading in the prayer (Q. 17:110), and the funeral prayer (Q. 9:84), probably because they are easily identified in their respective verses.
12. اْلكِتـَاب (writing, the act of writing)
According to Ibn al-Jawzī, the basic meaning of kitāb is jam‘ (collecting), since the writer (al-kātib) collects letters when he writes.[162] Ibn Qutaybah mentions us five meanings of kitāb as follows:
a. مَا كَتَبَهُ اللهُ فِى اللَّوْح (what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet). This is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of the term kitāb, but no example is given.[163] The example of the term kitāb meaning al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz. mentioned by Tiflīsī is as follows:
النَّبِيُّ أَوْلَى بِالْمُؤْمِنِينَ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ وَأَزْوَاجُهُ أُمَّهَاتُهُمْ وَأُولُو الْأَرْحَامِ
بَعْضُهُمْ أَوْلَى بِبَعْضٍ فِي كِتَابِ اللَّهِ مِنَ الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُهَاجِرِينَ إِلَّا أَنْ
تَفْعَلُوا إِلَى أَوْلِيَائِكُمْ مَعْرُوفًا كَانَ ذَلِكَ فِي الْكِتَابِ مَسْطُورًا
(الأحزاب :٦)
“The Prophet is clolser to the Believers than in their own“
selves, and his wives are their mothers. Blood relations among
each other have closer personal tie , in the Decree of God [i.e.,
al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.], than (the brotherhood of) Believers
and Muhajirs: nevertheless you do what is just to your
closest friends: such is the writing in the decree
(of God) [i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.].”
(A. 33:6, Ali)
Al-Dāmaghānī mentions other verses, namely,
مَا أَصَابَ مِنْ مُصِيبَةٍ فِي الْأَرْضِ وَلَا فِي أَنْفُسِكُمْ إِلَّا فِي كِتَابٍ
مِنْ قَبْلِ أَنْ نَبْرَأَهَا إِنَّ ذَلِكَ عَلَى اللَّهِ يَسِيرٌ (الحديد:٢٢)
“No misfortune can happen on earth in your souls but is
recorded in a decree [i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.] before We
bring it into ixistence: that is truly easy for God.”
(Q. 57:22, Ali)
قَدْ عَلِمْنَا مَا تَنْقُصُ الْأَرْضُ مِنْهُمْ وَعِنْدَنَا كِتَابٌ حَفِيظٌ ( ق:٤)
“We already know how much of therm the erth takes away;
Wit Us a Recording guarding (the full account)
[i.e., al-Lawh. al-Mah.fūz.].”
(Q. 50:4) [164]
b. اْلقَضَـاء (divine decree), as in كَتَبَ اللهُ لَأَغْلِبَنَّ أَنَا وَرُسُلِي (المجادلة: ٢١) "Allah has divinely decreed: I verily shall prevail, I and My messengers!..." (Q. 58:21).[165] Beside qad.ā’ al-T.abarsī also mentions the other meaning of kitāb, namely "what was written by Allah in the Preserved Tablet".[166] Al-Zamakhsharī gives the last meaning only. [167]
c. اْلفَـرْض (divine prescript) as in يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِيْنَ آمَنُوْا كُتِبَ عَلَيْكُمُ اْلقِصَاصُ فِي اْلقَتْلَى (البقرة: ١٧٨) "O you who believe! Retribution is prescribed for you in cases of killing..."(Q. 2:178).[168] Al-T.abarsī also mentions the second interpretation, namely, "it has been prescribed in the Preserved Tablet as an injuction for you".[169]
d. جَـعَلَ (make), as in أُوْلَئِكَ كَتَبَ فِي قُلُوْبِهِمُ اْلإيْمَان (المجادلة: ٢٢) "[As for the true believers], it is they in whose hearts He has made faith ..." (Q. 58:22).[170]
Both al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī mention athbata and thabbata, both meaning "to affirm" for the meaning of kataba in the above verse.[171]
e. الأَمْـر (command), as in يَا قَوْمِ ادْخُلُوا اْلأَرْضَ اْلمُقَدَّسَةَ الَّتِي كَتَبَ اللهُ لَكُم (المائدة: ٢١) "O my people! Enter the holy land which Allah has ordained for you..." (Q. 5:21). This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn Kathīr.[172] Instead of "hath ordained for you" or "has promised you" as translated by Pickthall and Asad respectively, Ibn Qutaybah says that kataba’llāhu lakum means "Allah has ordered you to enter" [173] أَمَرَكُمْ أَنْ) (تَدْخُلُوْهَا which is the interpretation of Qatādah and al-Suddī.[174] Ibn Qutaybah also gives another meaning of kataba in this verse, namely, "make" so that the verse means "enter the land which has been made for the descendants of Abraham" [175] ادْخُلُوا اْلأَرْضَ اْلمُقَدَّسَةَ الَّتِي كَتَبَ اللهُ لِوَلَدِ إِبْرَاهِيْمَ عَلَيْهِ السَّلام (أَيْ جَعَلَهَا لَكُم). This interpretation is similar to that of Ibn ‘Abbās above. The third interpretation, however, says that the term kataba in this verse means "it has been ordained in the Preserved Tablet that it is for you” [176] (كُتِبَ فَي الَّلوْحِ اْلَمْحُفْوِظ أَنَّهَا لَكُمْ). However, according to al-Rāghib al-As.banānī, the holy land was given to them on the condition that they entered therein. [177]
Ibn Qutaybah and Tiflīsī mention five, while Yah.yá ibn Sallām gives four meanings of the term kitāb. Ibn al-Jawzī cites eleven meanings, whereas al-Dāmaghānī lists ten meanings of this term. This great number is the result of their including the term kitāb to mean "what is written", so that it includes the Qur’ān, as well as the Torah and the Bible.
13. السَّبَب (reason, motive, means) and اْلحَـبْل (rope)
Sabab, as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, has four meanings as follows:
a. الحَـْبل (rope) which is its basic meaning.[178]
b. The connection or motive by which one achieves or reaches something, as in فُلانٌ سَبَبِيْ إِلَيْك ("So-and-so is the motive for my coming to you") meaning "So-and-so has brought me to you” (فُلانٌ وَصْلَتِيْ إِلَيْك) , and the expression مَا بَيْنِيْ وَبَيْنَكَ سَبَب ("There is no relationship between you and me, neither blood relationship nor spiritual one"). In other words, "there is nothing that can bring us together" (namely, "we have nothing to do with each other"). Originally, sabab signifies "a dry rope let down (or made to descend) from above", "a rope of which one end is attached to a roof or a ceiling or the like", or "a strong and long rope by means of which one ascends (such as palm trees) or descends (such as the access to water)".[179] From this meaning, another meaning appears, as follows:
c. الطَّرِيْقَـة (way, means), because by following it one will reach one's goal, as in (الكهف: ٨٥) فَأَتْبَعَ سَبَبـًا "And so he chose the right means [in whatever he did]." (Q. 18:85, Asad). [180]
d. اْلبَـاب (the door, the gate), because through it one reaches a certain place, as in وَقَالَ فِرْعَوْنُ يَا هَامَانُ ابْنِ لِيْ صَرْحًا لَعَلِّيْ أَبْلُغُ اْلأَْسْبَابَ. أَسْبَابَ السَّمَاوَاتِ فَأَلطَّلِعَ إِلىَ إِلَهِ مُوْسَى وَ إِنِّيْ لَأَظُنُّهُ كَاذِبًا (المؤمن: ٣٦-٣٧) "And Pharaoh said: O Haman! Build me a lofty tower that I may reach the doors, the doors of the heavens, and that [thus] I may have a look at the God of Moses: for, behold, I am indeed certain that he is a liar." (Q. 40:36-37).[181]
However, Al-T.abarsī, cites three interpretations of the term asbāb in the said verse: "the roads from one heaven to another" according to al-Suddī, "the doors of the roads of heavens" according to Qatādah, an Al-T.abarsī, and "the stopping places in the heavens" (مَنَازِلُ السَّمَاوَات), according to Ibn ‘Abbās.[182] Lane gives usthe meanings of asbāb here as "the places of ascent", "the tracks", "the regions" and "the gates" of heavens. [183]
As a shāhid Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of Zuhayr as follows:
مَنْ هَابَ أَسْبَابَ اْلمَنَايَا يَنَلْنَهُ * وَ لَوْ نَالَ أَسْبَابَ السَّمَاءِ بِسُلَّمِ
“Whoever fears the door of fate of death he will get it, even
if he should get to the doors of heaven with a ladder.”[184]
It means that whoever fears death will meet it soon.
Ibn Qutaybah, having in his mind of the basic meaning of h.abl as "a means to reach an end", mentions two meanings of it, as follows:
a. عَهْدُ اللهِ وَكِتَابُه (Allah's covenant and His Book), as in وَ اعتَصِمُوْا بِحَبْلِ اللهِ جَمِيْعًا وَلَا تَفَرَّقُوْا (آل عمران: ١٠٣) "And hold fast, all of you together, unto Allah's covenant and His Book [namely, the Qur’ān which is the link for the Muslims to reach Him and Paradise], and do not draw apart from one another...." (Q. 3:103).[185]
However, al-Zamakhsharī mentions "the covenant" only, [186] whereas according to Ibn Mas‘ūd the term h.abl Allāh in the verse means "the Qur’ān"[187] which is also the view of Mujāhid and Qatādah;[188] it is said that it is also the view of al-Suddī, while according to Ibn ‘Abbās and Abū Zayd it means "the religion of Allah", namely, Islam.[189]
b. اْلأَمْـن )peace, security, safety, protection), as in ضُرِبَتْ عَلَيْهِمُ الذَّلَّةُ أَيْنَ مَا ثُقِفُوْا إلَّا بِحَبْلٍ مِنَ اللهِ وَ حَبْلٍ مِنَ النَّاس (آل عمران: ١١٢ ("Overshadowed by ignominy are they wherever they may be, save [when they bind themselves again] with protection from Allah and peace from men." (Q. 3:112).[190] As a shāhid from poetry, Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-A‘shá as follows:
وَإِذَا تُجَوِّزُهَا حِبَالُ قِبِيْلَةٍ * أَخَذَتْ مِنَ الْأُخْرَى إِلَيْكَ حِبَالَهَا
“And when the (assurance of) safety from a tribe permits them
[namely, the camels or the caravan] to pass [the territory belonging
to that tribe], they also took permission from other tribes [and
brought it] to you [to pass their territories safely].” [191]
In the past, the caravan's route may have crossed the territories of several tribes. It was necessary for them to obtain from each an assurance of safe conduct which often involved payment of money.[192]
14. الظُّـْلم (wrongdoing)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm as follows:
a. وَضْعُ الشَّيْءِ فِيْ غَيْرِمَوْضِعِهِ (Putting something not in its proper place), namely, wrong doing. This is the basic meaning of z.ulm. The Arabic expression أَرْضٌ مَظْلُـْوَمة (lit., "a wronged piece of land") means "a piece of land dug in the wrong place", and the expression اْلزِمِ الطَّرِيْقَ وَلَا تَظْلِمْه means "keep on the track, and do not deviate from it".[193] No example from the Qur’ān is given here by Ibn Qutaybah, either in his work Ta’wīl or in his work Tafsīr.[194]
b. الشِّـرْك (polytheism, idolatory), as in الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَلَم يَلْبِسُوا إِيمَانَهم بِظُلْمٍ أُولَئِكَ لهُمُ الْأَمْنُ وَهُمْ مُهْتَدُونَ (الأنعام: ٨٢) "Those who believe and who have not obscured their belief by polytheism, theirs is safety; and they are rightly guided." (Q. 6:82).[195] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Sa‘īd ibn al-Musayyab, Qatādah, Mujāhid and the majority of commentators. When the above verse was revealed the Prophet's companions felt uneasy and asked the Prophet: "Which of us has never obscured his belief by wrongdoing?" The Prophet said: "It is not what you think it means. Have you ever heard of what the pious servant (meaning Luqman) said: يَا بُنَيَّ لَا تُشْرِكْ بِاللَّهِ إِنَّ الشِّرْكَ لَظُلْمٌ عَظِيمٌ (لقمان:١٣) ) 'O my dear son! Do not ascribe partners unto Allah. For, behold, to ascribe partners (unto Him) is a tremendous wrong doing.'" (Q. 31:13). [196]
Al-Zamakhsharī, however, insists on interpreting z.ulm in this verse as ma‘s.iyah (disobedience), and rejects kufr (disbelief), because of the keyword labs (obscurity); in his view, kufr cannot make faith obscure, but ma‘s.iyah can.[197]
c. النُّقْصَـان (reduction, loss, detriment, imperfection, blemish). The expression ظَلَمْتُكَ حَقَّك means "I reduce your right." The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: كِلْتَا الْجَنَّتَيْنِ آَتَتْ أُكُلَهَا وَلَمْ تَظْلِمْ مِنْهُ شَيْئًا (الكهف: ٣٣) "Each of the two gardens yielded its produce, and made not aught thereof to suffer loss..." (Q. 18:33).[198]
d. اْلجَـحْد (denial, disbelief), as in وَمَنْ خَفَّتْ مَوَازِينُهُ فَأُولَئِكَ الَّذِينَ خَسِرُوا أَنْفُسَهُمْ بِمَا كَانُوا بِآَيَاتِنَا يَظْلِمُونَ (الأعراف: ٩) "whereas those whose weight is light in the balance - it is they who will have squandered their own selves by their wilful denial of Our messages." (Q. 7:9). [199]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings for z.ulm. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī, and al-Dāmaghānī mention respectively five, six, seven, and nine meanings, among which is al-sariqah (stealing). This meaning was not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl. One of the examples in the Qur’ān is the following: قَالُوا جَزَاؤُهُ مَنْ وُجِدَ فِي رَحْلِهِ فَهُوَ جَزَاؤُهُ كَذَلِكَ نَجْزِي الظَّالِمِينَ (يوسف: ٧٥) “[The brother] replied: 'Its requital? He in whose camel-pack [the cup] is found - he shall be [enslaved as] a requital thereof! Thus do we [ourselves] requite the thieves.'" (Q. 12:75).[200]
It had been among the laws of Prophet Abraham to hand over the thief to the victim of the theft, and that was the rule that Prophet Joseph wanted to be applied. [201]
15. اْلبَـلاء (test, trial, affliction)
Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of balā’ is "a test", either for good or for bad things. It has two meanings: balā’ meaning a test and blessing. The root of the term meaning a test is balā yablū balwan (in Ibn Qutaybah's example,بَلَوْتُُهُ أَبْلُُْوهُ بَلْوًا , and the noun is balā’). For good things it is said ablá yublī iblā’an (أَبْلَوْتُهُ أُبْلِيْهِ إِبْـلاءً) and for bad things it is said balā yablū balā’an [202] (بَلاهُ اللهُ يَبْلُوْهُ بَلاءً)
According to al-Sharīf al-Murtad.á,however, أَبْلَوْتُهُ(instead of أَبْلَيْتُهُ), إبْلاءً, as well as بَلاءً are used for good things, whereas for bad things بَلَوْتُهُ, أَبْلُوْهُ and بِلىً (bilan) are commonly used. In other words, although بَلاءً is used for both good and bad things, it is more frequently used for good things, whereas for bad things بِلىً (bilan) is more frequently used among the Arabs. [203]
The examples given by Ibn Qutaybah from the verses of the Qur’ān are as follows:
a. اْلإخْتِـَبار (trial, test) as in إِنََّ هَذَا لَهُوَ الْبَلَاءُ الْمُبِينُ (الصافاّت: ١٠٦) “For, behold, all this way indeed a trial, clear in itself" (Q. 37:106), namely, the injunction to sacrifice his (Prophet Abraham's) son is a test for him.[204] The test can be for either good or bad things. Allah says: وَنَبْلُوكُمْ بِالشَّرِّ وَالْخَيْرِ فِتْنَةً (الأنبياء: ٣٥) “... and We try you with evil and with good for ordeal" (Q. 21:35, Pickthall), namely, We test you with evil to see your patience, and with good to see your gratitude. [205] They are, according to Ibn ‘Abbās, poverty and richness, sorrow and happiness, and comfort and hardship; or, according to Ibn Zayd, what you like, dislike and fail to do, so that you will become patient of what you dislike and thankful of what you like .
b. النِّعْمَـة (blessing), as in وَإِذْ نَجَّيْنَاكُمْ مِنْ آَلِ فِرْعَوْنَ يَسُومُونَكُمْ سُوءَ الْعَذَابِ يُذَبِّحُونَ أَبْنَاءَكُمْ وَيَسْتَحْيُونَ نِسَاءَكُمْ وَفِي ذَلِكُمْ بَلَاءٌ مِنْ رَبِّكُمْ عَظِيمٌ (البقرة: ٤٩) “And [remember the time] when We saved you from Pharaoh's people, who afflicted you with cruel suffering, slaughtering your sons and sparing [only] your women: That was a tremendous blessing from your Sustainer." (Q. 2:49). [206]
Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī interpret balā’ for both good and bad things: the good thing was that the children of Israel were delivered from Pharaoh's folk, and the bad thing was that the Pharaoh's folk afflicted them with dread torment as mentioned in the above verse.[207]
16. الرِّجْـز (punishment, a conduct that leads to punishment) and الرِّجْس (dirt, filth)
Al-rijz, according to Ibn Qutaybah, Tiflīsī, and Ibn al-Jawzī has three meanings in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلعَـذَاب (punishment), as in لَئِنْ كَشَفْتَ عَنَّا الرِّجْزَ لَنُؤْمِنَنَّ لَكَ ((الأعراف: ١٣٤) “.... If thou remove this punishment from us, we will truly believe in thee,..." (Q. 7:134). [208]
According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the wordرِجْز meaning عَذَاب (punishment) is the language of the Hudhayl (or T.ayy). [209]
b. كَيْدُ الشَّيْطَان (the trick of Satan), since it leads to punishment, as in وَيُذْهِبَ عَنْكُمْ رِجْزَ الشَّيْطَانِ (الأنفال: ١١) "... and free you from the trick of Satan..." (Q. 8:11).[210] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, رِجْزُ الشَّيْطَان in this verse means تَخْوِيْفُ الشَّيْطَان (the scare of Satan) in the language of the Quraysh. [211]
c. اْلأَوْثـَان (idols), since they also lead to Allah's punishment, as in وَالرُّجْزَ فَاهْجُرْ (المدثر: ٥) “And idols shun" (Q. 74:5).[212] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, Qatādah, and al-Zuhrī. Al-H.asan's interpretation is "avoid disobedience", whereas al-Kisā’ī makes a distinction between al-rijz meaning "punishment" and al-rujz meaning "idols".[213] However, Ibn Qutaybah states that since the term rujz also means "punishment", the verse means "avoid idolatory because it leads to punishment". This interpretation is similar to that of al-Zamakhsharī.[214]
Al-rijs means al-natn (decay).[215] This basic meaning developed into kufr (disbelief) and nifāq (hypocrisy), as in وَأَمَّا الَّذِينَ فِي قُلُوبِهِمْ مَرَضٌ فَزَادَتْهُمْ رِجْسًا إِلَى رِجْسِهِمْ وَمَاتُوا وَهُمْ كَافِرُونَ (التوبة: ١٢٥) "But as for those in whose hearts is disease, each new message but adds another [element of] disbelief to the disbelief which they already harbour, and they die while [still] refusing to acknowledge the truth." (Q. 9:125, Asad). [216]
17. اْلفِتْـنَة (test, trial, ordeal)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings of the term fitnah, as follows:
a. اْلإخْتِـبَار (test), as in the Arabic expression فَتَنْتُ الذَّهَبَ فِي النَّار (I tested the gold in fire). The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: وَلَقَدْ فَتَنَّا الَّذِينَ مِنْ قَبْلِهِمْ (العنكبوت: ٣) "Yea, indeed, We did test those who lived before them;..." (Q. 29:3, Asad). [217]
b. التَّعْذِيْب (persecution), as in وَمِنَ النَّاسِ مَنْ يَقُولُ آَمَنَّا بِاللَّهِ فَإِذَا أُوذِيَ فِي اللَّهِ جَعَلَ فِتْنَةَ النَّاسِ (العنكبوت: ١٠) “Now there is among men many a one who says [of himself and of others like him], 'We do believe in God' - but whenever he is made to suffer in Allah's cause, he thinks that persecution at the hands of man is as [much to be feared, or even more than] Allah's chastisement;.." (Q. 29:10, Asad). [218]
c. اْلإحْرَاق بِالنَّار (persecution by fire), as in إِنَّ الَّذِينَ فَتَنُوا الْمُؤْمِنِينَ وَالْمُؤْمِنَاتِ ثُمَّ لَمْ يَتُوبُوا فَلَهُمْ عَذَابُ جَهَنَّمَ وَلَهُمْ عَذَابُ الْحَرِيقِ (البروج: ١٠) “Verily, as for those who persecute by fire believing men and believing women, and thereafter do not repent, hell's suffering awaits them: yea, suffering through fire awaits them!" (Q. 85:10).[219] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Qatādah and al-D.ah.h.āk.[220] According to Ibn Kathīr, this is also the interpretation of Mujāhid. [221]
d. الصَّدُّ وَاْلإسْتِظْلال (turning someone away from the truth and making someone make an error), as in وَاحْذَرْهُمْ أَنْ يَفْتِنُوكَ عَنْ بَعْضِ مَا أَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ إِلَيْكَ (المائدة: ٤٩) "... and beware of them, lest they tempt thee away from aught that God has bestowed from on high upon thee...." (Q. 5:49, Asad).[222]
Both Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī give the interpretation of أَنْ يَفْتِنُوْكَ عَنْ in the above verse as يُضِلُّوْكَ عَنْهُ وَ يَسْتَزِلُّوْكَ (to deviate you from it and make you commit error). [223]
e. اْلإشْرَاك (polytheism, idolatry), as in وَالْفِتْنَةُ أَشَدُّ مِنَ الْقَتْلِ (البقرة: ١٩١) "… for polytheism is worse than slaughter." (Q. 2:191).[224] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Qatādah, Mujāhid,[225] as well as Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, ‘Ikrimah, al-H.asan, al-D.ah.h.āk and al-Rabī‘ ibn Anas.[226] Abū ‘Ubaydah and Lane interpret fitnah here as kufr (disbelief).[227]
f. اْلكُفْرُوَالإثْم (disbelief and sin), as in فَلْيَحْذَرِ الَّذِينَ يُخَالِفُونَ عَنْ أَمْرِهِ أَنْ تُصِيبَهُمْ فِتْنَةٌ أَوْ يُصِيبَهُمْ عَذَابٌ أَلِيمٌ (النور: ٦٣) ".... so let those who would go against His bidding beware, lest disbelief and sin or painful punishment befall them." (Q. 24:63).[228]
g. اْلإثْم (sin), as in أَلَا فِي الْفِتْنَةِ سَقَطُوا (التوبة: ٤٩) ".... Surely, it is into sin that they (thus) have fallen...." (Q. 9:49). This is also Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation. [229]
h. اْلعِبْرَة (warning, deterring example), as in رَبَّنَا لَا تَجْعَلْنَا فِتْنَةً لِلْقَوْمِ الظَّالِمِينَ (يونس: ٨٥) ".... O our Sustainer, make us not a deterring example for evildoing folk." (Q. 10:85).[230] The verse means "do not make the wrongdoing folk believe that they are right and we the believers are wrong when they see us in misery and misfortune, while they are in happiness and prosperity." [231]
This is the view of Mujāhid who says that the verse means "do not destroy us with our enemies' hands, and do not punish us with Your punishment, or our enemies would say 'if they were on the right way, then why did we [who are on the wrong way] subjugate them'".[232] A similar view is also given by al-Farrā’, al-Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī, and Ibn Manz.ūr.[233]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions eight meanings only of fitnah, whereas Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī mention fifteen, Tiflīsī mention fourteen, and both Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī mention eleven meanings. Many other meanings, such as قَتْل (assassination) in Q. 4:101, جُنُوْن (madness, insanity) in Q. 68:6, and ضَلالَة (error) in Q. 5:41, are dealt with by all of them with the exception of Ibn Qutaybah. The term fitnah in the verse Q. 6:23 which meansمَعْذِرَة (excuse) according to Qatādah [234] are dealt with by all of them. However, Ibn Qutaybah puts the verse into the category of verses with the term fitnah meaning إخْتِبَار. Nevertheless, he says that the term here means جَوَاب (the answer) to the question asked as a test mentioned in the preceding verse. [235]
18. الفَـْرض (duty, decree, order)
a. وُجُوْبُ الشَّيْء (the injunction of doing something), as in قَدْ عَلِمْنَا مَا فَرَضْنَا عَلَيْهِمْ فِي أَزْوَاجِهِمْ (الأحزاب: ٥٥) "... [seeing that] We have already made known what We have enjoined upon them with regard to their wives..." (Q. 33:50).[236]
b. اْلبَـيَان (explanation), as in سُورَةٌ أَنْزَلْنَاهَا وَفَرَضْنَاهَا (النور: ١) “A sūrah [is this] which We have bestowed from on high, and which We have distinctly explained..." (Q. 24:1).[237] This is the interpretation of Mujāhid and Qatādah according to Ibn Kathīr. [238] However, according to Ibn Qutaybah, it is also possible that the term farad.a in this verse means "to enjoin" as translated by Pickthall.[239] There are two variant readings in this verse: farad.nāhā and farrad.nāhā. The former means "We have enjoined the execution of what has been prescribed", and the latter means "We have distinctly explained in detail and define what has been prescribed in general, and what is h.alāl (permitted) and what is h.arām (prohibited)".[240]
c. اْلإنْزَال (sending down, revelation), as in إِنَّ الَّذِي فَرَضَ عَلَيْكَ الْقُرْآَنَ لَرَادُّكَ إِلَى مَعَادٍ (القصص: ٨٥) "Verily, He Who has sent down to thee the Qur’ān will surely bring thee home again..." (Q. 28:85).[241]
d. اْلإحْـلال (permission), as in مَا كَانَ عَلَى النَّبِيِّ مِنْ حَرَجٍ فِيمَا فَرَضَ اللَّهُ لَهُ (الأحزاب: ٣٨) “There is no reproach for the Prophet in that which Allah permits for him..." (Q. 33:38). [242]
19. اْلخِـيَانَة (disloyalty, treachery, betrayal)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of khiyānah, as follows:
a. entrusting a person with something, but he does not fulfil the trust أَنْ يُؤْتَمَنَ) (الرَّجُلُ عَلىَ شَيْءٍ فَلا يُؤْدِي اْلأَمَاَنة. Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example from the Qur’ān, but from poetry, the poem of al-Namir ibn Tawlab as follows:
وَ إنَّ بَنٍيْ رَبِيْعةَ َبَعْدَ وَهْبٍ * كَرَاعِي اْلبَيْتِ يَحْفَظُهُ فَخَانَا
“Verily, after (the loyalty and disloyalty of) Wahb tribe,
Banī Rabī‘ah are like the house keeper; he was (entrusted)
to keep it, then he betrayed it.”
Here Ibn Qutaybah makes a distinction between khā’in (a traitor) and sāriq (a thief); the former is a person who takes something which is entrusted to him, whereas the latter takes what is not entrusted to him. [243] The example from the Qur’ān is given by Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī, as follows: وَلَا تَكُنْ لِلْخَائِنِينَ خَصِيمًا (النساء: ١٠٥) ".... Hence, do no contend with those who are treacherous." (Q. 4:105).[244]
b. نَقْضُ اْلعَهِد (violation of treaty), as in وَإِمَّا تَخَافَنَّ مِنْ قَوْمٍ خِيَانَةً فَانْبِذْ إِلَيْهِمْ عَلَى سَوَاءٍ (الأنفال: ٥٨) "And if thou fearest violation of treaty from people [with whom thou hast made a treaty], cast it back at them in an equitable manner..." (Q. 8:58).[245]
c. مَعْصِيَةُ اْلمُسْلِمِيْن (disobedience of Muslims), as in يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا لَا تَخُونُوا اللَّهَ وَالرَّسُولَ وَتَخُونُوا أَمَانَاتِكُمْ وَأَنْتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ (الأنفال: ٢٧) "O you who believe! Do not disobey Allah and His messenger, nor knowingly betray your trusts..." (Q. 8:27).[846] The disobedience meant in this verse is neglecting Allah's injunctions and the Prophet's practice (sunnah) and laws (sharā’i‘) according to Ibn ‘Abbās, or any religious matter according to al-H.asan.[248]
20. اْلإسْـلام (submission)
There are three meanings of islām mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الدُّخُوْلُ فِي السِّلْم, entering into peace, (al-s.ulh., according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in وَلَا تَقُولُوا لِمَنْ أَلْقَى إِلَيْكُمُ السَّلَامَ لَسْتَ مُؤْمِنًا (النساء: ٩٤) “,... and do not say unto anyone who offers you peace: 'Thou art not a believer,...'" (Q. 4:94). [248]
Al-Zamakhsharī mentions a variant reading salama beside salāma; both have three meanings: istislām (surrender), islām (becoming Muslim), and taslīm (greeting with Islamic greeting). He also mentions the variant reading mu’manan (believed, saved) beside mu’minan (a believer). In a military detachment to Fadak, its inhabitants fled except Mirdās ibn Nāhik who had confidence with his being a Muslim and came down from the mountain, joined the takbīr with the invaders, pronounced the shahādah before them and greeted them with al-salāmu ‘alaykum. Usāmah ibn Zayd, not believing Mirdās's testament, killed him and seized his sheep. The Prophet who heard the incident was very upset and asked Usāmah: "Did you kill him because you wanted to take his property?" and read the above verse to him. When Usāmah asked him to ask Allah's forgiveness for him, he kept asking "How with lā ilāha illā ’llāh?", meaning "how should I ask forgiveness for you after you have killed a person who has pronounced the shahādah (became a Muslim)?" Upon hearing this, Usāmah wished he had become Muslim just at that moment, so that the sin he had just committed would be forgiven. Finally the Prophet prayed forgiveness for him and told him to free a slave.[249] After the incident and hearing the above verse, Usāmah promised not to kill a Muslim, and apologized to ‘Alī in his caliphate for not taking part in fighting against the dissenters.[250] These reports indicate that salāma or salama includes its three meanings istislām, islām, and taslīm in the verse in question, although Ibn Qutaybah mentions one only as mentioned above.
b. مُتَابَعَةٌ وِانْقِيَادٌ بِاللِّسَانِ دُوْنَ اْلقَلْب, following and submitting with the tongue only, not with the heart (al-iqrār bi ’l-lisān, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in قَالَتِ الْأَعْرَابُ آَمَنَّا قُلْ لَمْ تُؤْمِنُوا وَلَكِنْ قُولُوا أَسْلَمْنَا وَلَمَّا يَدْخُلِ الْإِيمَانُ فِي قُلُوبِكُمْ (الحجرات: ١٤) "The Bedouin say: We have believed. Say (unto them O Muhammad): You have not [yet] believed, but rather say: We have [outwardly] surrendered, for the faith hath not yet entered your hearts..." (Q. 49:14).[251] A group of people among the Banī Asad tribe who wanted to get charity came to the Prophet and claimed to have become Muslims. But Allah wanted them to know that the Prophet already knew that īmān had not yet entered into their hearts. So, the above verse was revealed to him. This was reported by Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr and Ibn Zayd.[252]
c. مُتَابَعَةٌ وِانْقِيَادٌ بِاللِّسَانِ وَ اْلقَلْب, following and submission with the tongue and with the heart; (al-ikhlās., sincerity, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as قَالَ أَسْلَمْتُ لِرَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ (البقرة: ١٣١) “....He [namely, Abraham] said: I have surrendered [outwardly and inwardly] to the Sustainer of the Worlds." (Q. 2:131).[253]
21. اْلإيْمَـان (belief, faith)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of īmān, as follows:
a. التَّصْدِيْق, belief, confirmation, attestation, as in the statement of Prophet Jacob's children to him about the death of their brother Joseph, as follows: وَمَا أَنْتَ بِمُؤْمِنٍ لَنَا وَلَوْ كُنَّا صَادِقِينَ (يوسف: ١٧) ".... But [we know that] thou wouldst not believe us even though we speak the truth." (Q. 12:17). This is also the interpretation given by Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn Kathīr, al-Zamakhsharī, and al-Tabarsī.[254] This interpretation, as we shall see, deals with its general context, and not faith in religion.
b. تَصْدِيْقٌ بِاللِّسَانِ دُوْنَ اْلقَلْب (believing with the tongue only, not with the heart), as in ذَلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ آَمَنُوا ثُمَّ كَفَرُوا (المنافقون: ٣) "That is because they believed [with their tongues] then disbelieved [with their hearts]..." (Q. 63:3).[255] This is called hypocrisy, and this is one interpretation. The apostates claimed to be believers when they were among believers, but among disbelievers they disbelieved. Another interpretation, however, says that the term āmanū means that they really believed, but later disbelieved and became apostates. [256]
c. التَّصْدِيْقُ بِاللِّسَانِ وَالْقَلْب (believing with the tongue and with the heart), as in إِنَّ الَّذِينَ آَمَنُوا وَعَمِلُوا الصَّالِحَاتِ أُولَئِكَ هُمْ خَيْرُ الْبَرِيَّةِ (البينة: ٧) "(And) lo! those who believe (outwwardly and inwardly) and do good works are the best of all creatures." (Q. 98:7). [257]
d. تَصْدِيْقٌ بِبَعْضٍ وَ تَكْذِيْبٌ بِبَعْض, believing some and disbelieving others اْلإيْمَانُ فِىْ) (شِرْك, believing while ascribing partners to Allah, according to al-Dāmaghānī), as in وَمَا يُؤْمِنُ أَكْثَرُهُمْ بِاللَّهِ إِلَّا وَهُمْ مُشْرِكُونَ (يوسف: ١٠٦) "And most of them do not even believe in Allah without [also] ascribing partners (unto Him),..." (Q. 12:106). Ibn Qutaybah gives his commentary on this verse. He says that if we ask the idolators among the Arabs, "Who created you?," they would say "Allah.” [258] This interpretation is that of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, ‘ A t.ā’, ‘Ikrimah, al-Sha‘bī, Qatādah, al-D.ah.h.āk, and ‘Abd al-Rah.mān ibn Zayd ibn Aslam. [259]
22. الضُّرّ (damage, harm, hurt, injury, misfortune, loss, or diasdvantage)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of d.urr or d.arr, as follows:
a. ضِدُّ النَّفْع (the opposite of benefit), namely, harm, as in قََالََ هَلْ يَسْمَعُونَكُمْ إِذْ تَدْعُونَ أَوْ يَنْفَعُونَكُمْ أَوْ يَضُرُّونَ (الشعراء: ٧٢-٧٣) "Said he: 'Do [you really think that] they hear you when you invoke them, or benefit you or do you harm?'" (Q. 26:72-73, Asad). [260]
b. الشِّدَّةُ وَاْلبَلاء (misfortune and affliction), as in وَإِنْ يَمْسَسْكَ اللَّهُ بِضُرٍّ فَلَا كَاشِفَ لَهُ إِلَّا هُوَ (الأنعام: ١٧) "And if Allah should touch thee with misfortune, there is none who can remove it but He;..." (Q. 6:17, Asad). [261]
c. قَحْطُ اْلمَطَر (want of rain, drought), as in وَإِذَا أَذَقْنَا النَّاسَ رَحْمَةً مِنْ بَعْدِ ضَرَّاءَ مَسَّتْهُمْ (يونس:٢١) "And if We cause mankind the taste of mercy [namely, rain] after some adversity [namely, drought] wich had afflicted them..." (Q. 10:21, Pickthall).[262]
d. الْهَوْل (terror, fright, alarm, shock), as in وَإِذَا مَسَّكُمُ الضُّرُّ فِي الْبَحْرِ ضَلَّ مَنْ تَدْعُونَ إِلَّا إِيَّاهُ (الإسراء: ٦٧) "And whenever terror befalls you at sea, all those [powers] that you are wont to invoke forsake you, [and nothing remains for you] save Him:..." (Q. 17:67).[263]
e. اْلمَرَض (illness, disease) as in وَأَيُّوبَ إِذْ نَادَى رَبَّهُ أَنِّي مَسَّنِيَ الضُّرُّ وَأَنْتَ أَرْحَمُ الرَّاحِمِينَ (الأنبياء: ٨٣) "And [remember] Job, when he cried unto his Sustainer, 'Affliction [namely, disease] has befallen me: but Thou art the most merciful of the merciful.'" (Q. 21:83, Asad). [264] Here the term d.urr is interpreted by Ibn Qutaybah as "disease".
f. النَّقْص (defect, blemish, decrease, loss damage; lack, shortage), as in إِنََّّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا وَصَدُّوا عَنْ سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ وَشَاقُّوا الرَّسُولَ مِنْ بَعْدِ مَا تَبَيَّنَ لَهُمُ الْهُدَى لَنْ يَضُرُّوا اللَّهَ شَيْئًا (محمد: ٣٢) "Those who reject God, hinder (men) from the path of God, and resist the apostle, after guidance has been clearly shown to them, will not injure [namely, defect, according to Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation] God in the least, ..." (Q. 47:32, Ali). [265]
We notice that Tiflisi does not give قَحْطُ اْلمَطَر (want of rain, drought) as one of the meanings of the term d.urr or d.arr, whereas Ibn Qutaybah does not mention اْلجَوْع (hunger, starvation) as the meaning of the term in the following verse: فَلَمَّا دَخَلُوا عَلَيْهِ قَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الْعَزِيزُ مَسَّنَا وَأَهْلَنَا الضُّرُّ (يوسف: ٨٨) “And when they presented themselves before him, they said: 'O thou great one! Hardship has visited us and our folk,...'" (Q. 12:88, Asad) which is starvation as mentioned by al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī. [266] Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī also include "starvation" as the meaning of d.urr in this verse.[267]
23. اْلحَـرَج (narrowness, confinement; hardship, difficulty; restriction; oppression, distress, anguish, prohibition)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.araj, as follows:
a. الضِّيْق (narrowness, annoyance, hardship). This is the basic meaning of h.araj according to Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn al-Athīr,[268] as in هُوَ اجْتَبَاكُمْ وَمَا جَعَلَ عَلَيْكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ مِنْ حَرَجٍ (الحج: ٧٨) "... it is He who has elected you [to carry His message], and has laid no hardship on you in [anything that pertains to] religion,..." (Q.22:78, Asad).[269] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word الحَرَج meaning الضِّيْق is the language of Qays (ibn) ‘Aylān. [270]
b. الشَّـكّ (doubt), as in كِتَابٌ أُنْزِلَ إِلَيْكَ فَلَا يَكُنْ فِي صَدْرِكَ حَرَجٌ مِنْهُ (الأعراف: ٢) "A divine writ has been bestowed from on high upon thee - and let there be no doubt about this in thy heart - ..." (Q. 7:2, Asad). This is also the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, Qatādah, al-Suddī, and al-Farrā’.[271] Ibn Kathīr mentions Mujāhid, Qatādah and al-Suddī who interpret h.araj as shakk.[272] According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word الحَرَج meaning الشَّكّ is in th language of the Quraysh.[273] Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, interprets h.araj in this verse as d.īq. [274]
c. الإثْـم (sin, offence, misdeed, crime), as in لَيْسَ عَلَى الْأَعْمَى حَرَجٌ (النور: ٦١) "No offence attaches to the blind..." (Q. 24:61).[275]
24. الـُّرْوح (breath of life, soul; spirit)
Ibn Qutaybah gives seven meanings of rūh. in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. رُوْحُ الْأَجْسَام (soul of the bodies) taken away by Allah at the moment of death.[276] No example from the Qur’ān is given by Ibn Qutaybah; others mention the following verses: وَيَسْأَلُونَكَ عَنِ الرُّوحِ (الإسراء: ٨٥) "And they will ask thee about [the nature of] soul..." (Q. 17:85).[277] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās. But Ibn Qutaybah mentions the above verse as one of the examples of the term rūh. meaning a huge angel which is ‘Ali's interpretation. Other interpretations include: Gabriel, according to al-H.asan and Qatādah, Prophet‘ Īsá (Jesus), and the Qur’ān. [278] Asad’s interpretation of rūh. in the above verse is "divine inspiration". He contends that "the preceding as well as the subsequent verses relate explicitly to the Qur’ān and hence, to the phenomenon of divine revelation". [279]
b. جِبْرِيْـل (Gabriel), as in وَإِنَّهُ لَتَنْزِيلُ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ نَزَلَ بِهِ الرُّوحُ الْأَمِينُ (الشعراء: ١٩٢-١٩٣) "And lo! it is a revelation of the Lord of the Worlds, which the True Spirit [namely, Gabriel] hath brought down upon thy heart, ..." (Q. 26:192-193, Pickthall).[280]
c. مَلَكٌ عَظِيْم (a huge angel), so huge that as he stands alone he makes one line by himself, while other angels make another, mentioned in the Qur’ān as follows: يَوْمَ يَقُومُ الرُّوحُ وَالْمَلَائِكَةُ صَفًّا لَا يَتَكَلَّمُونَ إِلَّا مَنْ أَذِنَ لَهُ الرَّحْمَنُ وَقَالَ صَوَابًا (النبأ: ٣٨) "On the day when the angels and the Spirit stand arrayed, they speak not, saving him who the Beneficent alloweth and who speaketh right." (Q. 78:38). The Spirit here means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the huge angel. [281]
Al-Qurt.ubī mentions eight interpretations of the term al-rūh. in the above verse, as follows: (1) a huge angel, who in the Hereafter will stand alone and make one line by himself, and another for the other angels; this is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and Ibn Mas‘ūd quoted by Ibn Qutaybah above (and of ‘At.ā, according to al-T.abarsī); (2) Gabriel, according to al-Sha‘bī, al-D.ah.h.āk, and Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr; (3) soldiers of Allah, neither human beings nor angels, but have human forms and eat food; this is the view of Abū S.ālih. and Mujāhid (as well as Qatādah according to al-T.abarsī); (4) the nobles among angels, according to Muqātil ibn H.ayyān; (5)حَفَظَة عَلىَ اْلمَلائِكَة (guards of angels); (6) human beings, according to al-H.asan and Qatādah; they interpret al-rūh. as dhawū al-rūh. (those who have spirits); according to al-T.abarsī, this is the view of al-H.asan only; al-T.abarī states that Qatādah said:هَذَا مِمَّا كَانَ يَكْتُمُهُ ابْنُ عَبَّاس ("This is among what has been concealed by Ibn ‘Abbās"), and this is the interpretation chosen by M. Asad; (7) the spirits (souls) of the children of Adam before they return to their bodies, according to ‘At.iyyah (or Ibn ‘Abbās, according to al-T.abarī), and (8) the Qur’ān according to Zayd ibn Aslam. [282] Al-Suyūt.ī mentions جَيْشٌ مِنَ اْلمَلائِكَة (an army of angels) as the interpretation of rūh. in the above verse. [283]
d. النَّفْخ (blowing, breathing), as in the following poem of Dhū ’l-Rummah:
وَقُلْتُ لَهُ ارْفَعْهَا إِلَيْكَ وَ اَحْيِهَا * بِرُوْحِكَ …
“And I said to him: 'Lift it [the fire] up to you to
keep it alive with your gentle blowing...'” [284]
The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: وَالَّتِي أَحْصَنَتْ فَرْجَهَا فَنَفَخْنَا فِيهَا مِنْ رُوحِنَا وَجَعَلْنَاهَا وَابْنَهَا آَيَةً لِلْعَالَمِينَ (الأنبياء: ٩١) “And remember her who guarded her chastity, whereupon We breathed into her of Our blowing and caused her, together with her son, to become a symbol [of Our grace] unto all people." (Q. 21:91). Ibn Qutaybah states that the Messiah is called "the Spirit of Allah" because he was created through Gabriel by Allah's breath. The Messiah is also so called because he existed by His word "be" and he existed.[285] Another interpretation is that rūh. here means the spirit of ‘Īsá. [286]
e. كَلامُ الله (the word of Allah), namely, revelation, is also called rūh., because it gives life to the ignorant and infidels who are like dead people, as in يُلْقِي الرُّوحَ مِنْ أَمْرِهِ عَلَى مَنْ يَشَاءُ مِنْ عِبَادِهِ (المؤمن: ١٥) "... By His Own will does He bestow His word upon whomever He wills of His servants,..." (Q. 40:15).[287] The meaning of the term rūh. here according to al-Zamakhsharī, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī is wahy (revelation). [288] According to al-Farrā’, the rūh. here means النُّبُوَّة (prophethood), whereas al-Tabarsī mentions three meanings: the Qur’ān and all the revealed books sent to messengers, the revelation, and Jibrīl (Gabriel). [289]
f. الرَّحْمَـة (blessing), as in أُولَئِكَ كَتَبَ فِي قُلُوبِهِمُ الْإِيمَانَ وَأَيَّدَهُمْ بِرُوحٍ مِنْهُ (المجادلة: ٢٢) ... [As for the true believers,] it is they in whose hearts He has inscribed faith, and whom He has strengthened with blessing from Him, ..." (Q. 58:22).[290] Al-Tabarsī mentions four meanings of rūh. in this verse: the light of faith, the light of reasoning, the Qur’ān, and Gabriel.[291]
g. حَيَاةٌ وَبَقَاء (life and eternity where there will be no death), as in فَرَوْحٌ وَرَيْحَانٌ وَجَنَّةُ نَعِيمٍ (الواقعة: ٨٩) "Perpetual life [awaits him in the life to come], and inner fulfilment, and a garden of bliss." (Q. 56:89). This is the interpretation of Abu ‘Ubaydah and al-Farrā’ quoted by Ibn Qutaybah. [292]
This is one of the three interpretations given by al-Zamakhsharī, the other two being istirāh.ah (rest) and rah.mah (blessing).[293] Al-T.abarsī mentions two different interpretations, the rest from the burden of life which is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās and Mujāhid, and the air (al-hawā’). [294]
There are two more interpretations of rūh. which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah: firstly, اْلأَمْر (the command), as in إِنَّمَا الْمَسِيحُ عِيسَى ابْنُ مَرْيَمَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ وَكَلِمَتُهُ أَلْقَاهَا إِلَى مَرْيَمَ وَرُوحٌ مِنْهُ (النساء: ١٧١) "The Messiah, Jesus son of Mary, was only a messenger of Allah, and His word which He conveyed unto Mary, and a command from Him...." (Q. 4:171);[295] Other interpretations are given by al-T.abarsī, among which are: Gabriel, a mercy from Allah, and a spirit created, fashioned, then sent by Allah to Mary which is the interpretation of Ubayy ibn Ka‘b reported by Abū al-‘Āliyah;[296]
secondly, the Qur’ān, as in وَكَذَلِكَ أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ رُوحًا مِنْ أَمْرِنَا (الشورى: ٥٢) “And thus have We revealed to thee (Muh.ammad) the Qur’ān by Our command ..." (Q. 42:52). [297]
With regard to the second verse, rūh.an min amrinā is the Qur’ān itself according to al-D.ah.h.āk whose view is adopted by al-Suyūt.ī, whereas Ibn Qutaybah gives كَلامُ الله (the word of Allah) as its interpretation. [298] However, there are many other interpretations, namely, نُبُوَّة (prophethood) according to Ibn ‘Abbās, رَحْمَة(blessing) according to al-H.asan and Qatādah,وَحْي (revelation) according to al-Suddī, كِتًَاب (scripture) according to al-Kalbī, and Jibrīl according to al-Rabī‘. [299]
25. اْلوَحْـي (inspiration, revelation)
Ibn Qutaybah interprets the basic meaning of wah.y, as follows: "everything suggested by means of speaking, writing, sign, or message [300] كُلُُّ) (شَيْءٍ دَلَلَتَ بِهِ مِنْ كِتَابٍ أَوْ إِشَارَةٍ أَوْ رِسَالَةٍ." Ibn Manz.ūr includes inspiration (اْلإلْهَام), secret talk (الكَلامُ الخَفِيّّ) among the meanings of wah.y.[301] However, according to al-Qurt.ubī, the term wah.y among the Arabs means "writing", "inscription" as in the following poem of Dhū al-Rummah:
سِوَى الأَرْبُعِ الدُّهْمِ اللَّوَاتِيْ كَأََنََّهَا * بَقِيَّةُ وَحْيٍ في بُطُوْنِ الصَّحَائِفِ
“Except the four black women who were similar to
the remnant of inscription in the midst of leaves,”
and in the following poem of ‘Antarah:
كَوَحْي صَحَائِف مِنْ عَهْدِ كِسْرَى - فَأَهْدَاهَا لِأَعْجَمِ طُُُُُمْطُُُُُمِي
“[It is] similar to an inscription on leaves in the time of Kisra (Khosrau),
so that he gave them as a gift to a non-eloquent a‘jamī (non-Arab).” [302]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions six meanings of this term in the Qur’ān, as folows:
a. اْلإرْسَال (sending a message), namely, revelation through Gabriel, as in إِنَّا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَيْكَ كَمَا أَوْحَيْنَا إِلَى نُوحٍ وَالنَّبِيِّينَ مِنْ بَعْدِهِ (النساء: ١٦٣) "Behold, We have sent thee a message as We sent to Noah and the prophets after him,..." (Q. 4:163). [303]
b. اْلإشَـارَة (sign, gesture, signal), as in فَخَرَجَ عَلَى قَوْمِهِ مِنَ الْمِحْرَابِ فَأَوْحَى إِلَيْهِمْ أَنْ سَبِّحُوا بُكْرَةً وَعَشِيًّا (مريم: ١١) “Thereupon he came out of the sanctuary unto his people and signified to them [by gestures]: 'Extol His limitless glory by day and by night!'" (Q. 19:11, Asad).[304]
This is the view of Qatādah, al-Kalbī and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujāhid and ‘Ikrimah, that the term awh.á in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll." [305] This latter view is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah. His argument is that in another verse mentioning the same story, the term ramz (sign, gesture) is given, as follows: قَالَ رَبِّ اجْعَلْ لِي آَيَةً قَالَ آَيَتُكَ أَلَّا تُكَلِّمَ النَّاسَ ثَلَاثَةَ أَيَّامٍ إِلَّا رَمْزًا (آل عمران: ٤١) “[Zachariah] prayed: 'O my Sustainer! Appoint a sign for me!' Said [the angel]: 'Thy sign shall be that for three days thou wilt not speak unto men other than by gestures...'" (Q. 3:41, Asad). The sign here means, Ibn Qutaybah contends, moving the two lips, eyebrows or eyes, and not writing. [306]
c. اْلإلْهَام (inspiration) as in وَإِذْ أَوْحَيْتُ إِلَى الْحَوَارِيِّينَ أَنْ آَمِنُوا بِي وَبِرَسُولِي قَالُوا آَمَنَّا وَاشْهَدْ بِأَنَّنَا مُسْلِمُونَ (المائدة: ١١١) "And [remember the time] when I inspired the white-garbed ones: 'Believe in Me and in My Apostle! 'They answered: 'We believe; and bear Thou witness that we have surrendered [unto Thee].'" (Q. 5:111, Asad). [307]
According to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, wah.y in this verse means revelation to the white garbed ones through Prophet ‘Īsá (Jesus).[308] Both Abū Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī intepret wah.y in this verse as amr (command). [309]
d. الْإِعْلامُ فِي اْلمَنَام (information given during sleep), namely, true vision, as in وَمَا كَانَ لِبَشَرٍ أَنْ يُكَلِّمَهُ اللَّهُ إِلَّا وَحْيًا (الشورى: ٥١) “And it was not (vouchsafed) to any mortal that Allah should speak to him unless (it be) by true vision..." (Q. 42:51).[310]
e. الإعْلامُ بِاْلوَسْوَسَةِ مِنَ الشَّيْطَان (information through the whispering of the devil), as in وَإِنَّ الشَّيَاطِينَ لَيُوحُونَ إِلَى أَوْلِيَائِهِمْ لِيُجَادِلُوكُمْ (الأنعام: ١٢١) "And, verily, the devils tempt their minions with wicked suggestions to dispute with you..." (Q. 6:121).[311] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās.[312]
f. الأَمْـر (order, command), as in بِأَنَّ رَبَّكَ أَوْحَى لَهَا (الزلزلة: ٥) "as they Sustainer will have ordered her to do." (Q. 99:5). This is the interpretation given by Mujāhid adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. [313] Here Ibn Qutaybah cites the poem of al-‘Ajjāj in which the term wah.y, means "order", as follows: وَحَى لَهَا اْلقَرَارَ فَاسْتَقَرَّتِ “He ordered it (the earth) to settle, and so it settled." [314] However, according to Ibn ‘Abbās's interpretation, awh.á lahā here means "Allah gave permission to the earth to tell what had been done on it", and this intepretation is adopted by al-Farrā’.[315]
26. اْلفَـَرح (joy, gladness, happiness)
There are three meanings of the term farah. in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. اْلمَسَرَّة (joy, happiness, delight, pleasure), as in إِذَا كُنْتُمْ فِي الْفُلْكِ وَجَرَيْنَ بِهِمْ بِرِيحٍ طَيِّبَةٍ وَفَرِحُوا بِهَا (يونس: ٢٢) "... when ye are in the ships and they sail with them a fair breeze they are glad therein..." (Q. 10:22, Pickthall).[316]
b. الرِّضَـا (contentment, satisfaction), as in كُلُّ حِزْبٍ بِمَا لَدَيْهِمْ فَرِحُونَ (المؤمنون: ٥٣؛ الروم: ٣٢) "Every sect is content with that [religion] which it has." (Q. 23:53 and 30:32, Lane). [317]
c. اْلبَطَرُ وَ اْلأشَر (exultation, wantonness, pride, arrogance, vanity, cockiness and liveliness, high spirits, exuberance, wildness, insolence, impertinence, excessive joy), as in إِذْ قَالَ لَهُ قَوْمُهُ لَا تَفْرَحْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ الْفَرِحِينَ (القصص: ٧٦) "When [they perceived his arrogance,] his people said unto him: 'Exult not [in thy wealth], for, verily, God does not love those who exult [in things vain]!'" (Q. 28:76, Asad).[318] This is, according to Ibn Kathīr, the interpretation of Mujāhid.[319] Here Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention the three meanings of the term فَرَح in conformity with those mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah.
27. اْلفَتْح (opening, conquest, victory)
Three meanings of fath. are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. أَنْ يُفْتَحَ اْلمُغْلَق (opening something closed), as in حَتَّى إِذَا جَاءُوهَا وَفُتِحَتْ أَبْوَابُهَا (الزمر: ٧٣) "... till, when they reach it, they shall find its gates wide-open;..." (Q. 39:73, Asad).[320]
Al-Zamakhsharī mentions two interpretations regarding the position of wa in the above verse: (1) It means "when they came to Heaven they came to it with its doors (or gates) open” (مَعَ فَتْحِ أَبْوَابِهَا); (2) It means “when they came to it its door had been opened”. “Unlike the doors of Hell which will be opened only when those who are to enter it arrive, the doors of Heaven will have been opened before the arrival of its companions, as mentioned in the Qur’ān جَنَّاتِ عَدْنٍ مُفَتَّحَةً لَهُمُ الْأَبْوَابُ (ص: ٥١) "Gardens of Eden, whereof the gates are opened for them." (Q. 38:50, Pickthall).[321]
b. النَّصْرَة (victory), as in فَإِنْ كَانَ لَكُمْ فَتْحٌ مِنَ اللَّهِ (النساء: ١٤١) "...thus, if victory comes to you from Allah..." (Q. 4:141). [322]
c. اْلقَضَاء (judgement) which is an opening to what is ambiguous, as in قُلْ يَجْمَعُ بَيْنَنَا رَبُّنَا ثُمَّ يَفْتَحُ بَيْنَنَا بِالْحَقِّ (سبأ: ٢٦) "Say: Our Sustainer will bring us all together, then He will judge between us with truth." (Q. 34:26).[323]
According to Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn Kathīr and al-T.abarsī, yaftah. in the above verse means yah.kum (decide), which is similar to yaqd.ī (judge).[324] Another meaning which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is al-irsāl (the sending down), as in مَا يَفْتَحِ اللَّهُ لِلنَّاسِ مِنْ رَحْمَةٍ فَلَا مُمْسِكَ لَهَا (فاطر: ٢) "Whatever grace Allah sends down to man, none can withhold it;..." (Q. 35:2).[325]
28. اْلكَرِيْم (noble; eminent; generous; beneficent; kind; honourable)
There are four meanings of karīm in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشَّرِيْفُ اْلفَاِضل (distinguished, honoured, eminent) as in وَنُدْخِلْكُمْ مُدْخَلًا كَرِيمًا (النساء: ٣١) "... and shall cause you to enter an abode of glory." (Q. 4:31, Asad),[326] "a good place", according to al-T.abarsī's interpretation. [327]
b. الصَّفُوْح (forgiving), as in فَإِنَّ رَبِّي غَنِيٌّ كَرِيمٌ (النمل: ٤٠) "..., verily, my Sustainer is self-sufficient, forgiving." (Q. 27:40).[328]
Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of karīm in the above verse is "He is kind to His servants, grateful, ungrateful, disobedient as well as obedient among them." [329]
c. كَثِيْرُالْكَرَم (bountiful), as in وَرِزْقٌ كَرِيمٌ (الأنفال: ٤, ٧٤ ؛ الحج: ٥٠؛ النور: ٢٦؛ سبأ: ٤) "... and a bountiful provision." (Q. 8:4 and 74; 22:50; 24:26; 34:4, Pickthall).[330]
d. اْلحَسَن (nice, fine, good) as in وَقُلْ لَهُمَا قَوْلًا كَرِيمًا (الإسراء: ٢٣) "... but speak to them a gracious word." (Q. 17:23, Pickthall).[331]
Another meaning of karīm mentioned by Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī is respectively مُتَكَرِّم (a person who makes himself noble) andالكَْرِيْمُ فِيْ زَعْمِه (a person who thinks he is noble) as in Q. 44:49.[332]
29. اْلمَثَـل (likeness, similarity, example; lesson; similar case)
Three meanings of mathal in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشَّـَبه (similarity, likeness) as in مَثَلُ الَّذِينَ اتَّخَذُوا مِنْ دُونِ اللَّهِ أَوْلِيَاءَ كَمَثَلِ الْعَنْكَبُوتِ اتَّخَذَتْ بَيْتًا وَإِنَّ أَوْهَنَ الْبُيُوتِ لَبَيْتُ الْعَنْكَبُوتِ لَوْ كَانُوا يَعْلَمُونَ (العنكبوت: ٤١) "The likeness of those who choose other patrons than Allah is as the likeness of the spider when she takes unto herself a house, and lo! the frailest of all houses is the spider's house, if they but knew." (Q. 29:41, Pickthall). [333]
b. اْلعِبْرَة (example, lesson, advice) as in فَجَعَلْنَاهُمْ سَلَفًا وَمَثَلًا لِلْآَخِرِينَ (الزخرف: ٥٦) ("and so We made them a thing of the past, and an example to those who would come after them." (Q. 43:56, Asad). [334]
c. الصُّوْرَةُ وَالصِّفَة (image and description) as in مَثَلُ الْجَنَّةِ الَّتِي وُعِدَ الْمُتَّقُونَ فِيهَا أَنْهَارٌ مِنْ مَاءٍ غَيْرِ آَسِنٍ (محمد : ١٥) "The image and the description of the Garden which those who keep their duty (to Allah) are promised: Therein are rivers of water unpolluted, ..." (Q. 47:15). [335]
Ibn Kathīr mentions نَعْـت which is the synonym of صِفَة (description) as the meaning of mathal in the above verse.[336] Al-Farrā’ states that the variant reading of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Alī is أَمْثَالُ اْلجَنَّة , meaning [337] صِفَةُ اْلجَنَّة
30. الضَّـرْب (beating, striking, hitting)[338]
Three meanings of d.arb in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الضَّرْبُ بِاْليَد (beating with hands) as in فَإِذَا لَقِيتُمُ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فَضَرْبَ الرِّقَابِ (محمد: ٤) "Now when you meet [in battle] those who disbelieve, smite their necks ..." (Q. 47:4). [339]
b. اْلمَسِيْرَة (travel), as in وَآَخَرُونَ يَضْرِبُونَ فِي الْأَرْضِ (المزمل: ٢٠) "... while others travel in the land..." (Q. 73:20, Pickthall).[340]
c. التَّبْيِيْنُ وَاْلوَصْف (explanation and description), as in ضَرَبَ اللَّهُ مَثَلًا (النحل: ٧٥) "Allah describes a parable..." (Q. 16:75 and 112). [341]
According to Ibn al-Jawzī, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī the term d.arb in the above verse means was.f only, whereas al-T.abarsī mentions tabyīn only.[342] The fourth meaning of this term, according to al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī, is bayān, as in Q. 14:45 and Q. 25:39. [343]
31. الزَّوْج (one of a pair, a pair, a couple; mate, partner; husband, wife) Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of zawj in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. إثْنَانِ وَوَاحِد (a pair or one of the pair), as in وَأَنَّهُ خَلَقَ الزَّوْجَيْنِ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى (النجم: ٤٥) "and that it is He who creates the two pairs [namely, spouses] - the male and the female". (Q. 53:45). Here zawj means one of the pair.[344]
b. الصِّنْف (kind, species, class), as in سُبْحَانَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ الْأَزْوَاجَ كُلَّهَا مِمَّا تُنْبِتُ الْأَرْضُ (يس: ٣٦) "Limitless in His glory is He who has created all species in whatever the earth produces..." (Q. 36:36).[345]
c. اْلقِرِيْن (companion, mate, fellow), as in احْشُرُوا الَّذِينَ ظَلَمُوا وَأَزْوَاجَهُمْ وَمَا كَانُوا يَعْبُدُونَ (الصافات: ٢٢) "[And God will thus command:] 'Assemble all those who were bent on evildoing, together with others of their ilk and [with] that they were wont to worship.'" (Q. 37:22, Asad). The meaning of azwāj here is "companions". Ibn Qutaybah does not explain what kind of companions they are, but al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī say that they are قُرَنَاءَهُمْ مِنَ الشَّيَاطِيْن (their companions among the devils, namely, evil people).[346] According to Mujāhid, ‘Umar and al-Suddī, the term azwāj means "people like them who had committed similar sins", whereas according to Qatādah and Abū al-‘Āliyah, it means "the followers of people who had committed similar sins". However, these two slightly different interpretations are also given by Ibn ‘Abbās, and both mean the same thing, namely "people committing the same sin will be assembled together", so that the adulterers will be assembled together, and alcohol drinkers will also be assembled together, and so on. [347]
Al-H.asan interprets the term أَزْوَاجُهُمْin the above verse as "the wives of idolaters who are also unbelievers and idolaters"; they will be assembled together with their husbands.[348]
According to Qut.rub, Ibn Qutaybah, al-T.abarī and al-Qurt.ubī, the term zawj is applicable to one pair as well as one of a pair. There is no disagreement in accepting that it is applicable to one of a pair. It is explicitly said in the Qur’ān ثَمَانِيَةَ أَزْوَاجٍ مِنَ الضَّأْنِ اثْنَيْنِ وَمِنَ الْمَعْزِ اثْنَيْنِ ... وَمِنَ الْإِبِلِ اثْنَيْنِ وَمِنَ الْبَقَرِ اثْنَيْنِ (الأنعام: ١٤٣-١٤٤) "Eight pairs: Of the sheep twain, and of the goats twain.... And of the camels twain and of the oxen twain..." (Q. 6:143-144, Pickthall). The expression "eight pairs" means "eight individuals of (four) pairs": sheep, goats, camels and oxen. In Arabic expression it is said لِفُلانٍ زَوْجَانِ مِنْ حَمَامٍ أَيْ ذَكَرٌوَأُنْثَى meaning "So-and-so has two mates of pigeons, namely, a male and a female); عِنْدِيْ زَوْجَانِ مِنَ اْلخِفَاف means "I have two individuals of a pair of slippers". This is also the argument of Ibn al-Anbārī who rejects the opinion that the term zawj is also applicable to a pair instead of exclusively one of a pair. However, according to al-T.abarī and al-Qurt.ubī it is possible to say either هُمَا زَوْجَان ("both are two spouses") or هُمَا زَوْج ("both are a pair"). It is, al-Qurt.ubī contends, like saying هُمَا سَيَّان("both are the same", in dual form) and هُمَا سَوَاء ("both are the same", in singular form).[349]
According to al-Zamakhsharī, one of a pair is called zawj on the condiutuion that it is accompanied with the other ionber of the pair. It is like calling zujājah (a glass) ka’s (a cup, as drinking glass) if it contains alcohol.[350] Like Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Sijistānī and Ibn al-Fāris also say thgat zawj means ”one of a pair” and not two. [351] In modern Arabic, zawj means one of a pair as well as a pair, a spouse (a husband or a wife) as well as a couple, a mate, a partner, while zawjah means a wife.
32. الـرُّؤْيـَة (seeing, viewing)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of ru’yah in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلمُعَايَنَة (seeing with eyes), as in وَيَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ تَرَى الَّذِينَ كَذَبُوا عَلَى اللَّهِ وُجُوهُهُمْ مُسْوَدَّةٌ (الزمر: ٦٠) "And [so], on the Day of Resurrection thou wilt see all who invented lies about God [with] their faces darkened [by grief and ignominy]...." (Q. 39:60, Asad).[352]
b. اْلعِـْلم (knowledge), as in أَوَلَمْ يَرَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنَّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ كَانَتَا رَتْقًا فَفَتَقْنَاهُمَا (الأنبياء: ٣٠) “Are, then, they who are bent on denying the truth not aware that the heavens and the earth were [once] one single entity, which We then parted asunder? ..." (Q. 21:30).[353]
c. اْلإخْبَار (notification, information), as in أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ أُوتُوا نَصِيبًا مِنَ الْكِتَابِ (آل عمران: ٢٣؛ النساء: ٤٤ و٥١) "Hast thou not been informed of those who have received the Scripture...?" (Q. 3:23 and 4:44 and 51).[354]
According to Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī, the meaning ofأَلَمْ تَرَ is أَلَمْ تَنْظُرْ إِلىَ فِعْلِهِمْ (have not you seen what they have done), while according to al-Zamakhsharī and al-Zamakhsharī the expression means أَلَمْ يَنْتَهِ عِلْمُكَ إِلىَ (has not it come to your knowledge about). [355]
Ibn al-Jawzī, who cites six meanings of ru’yah, mentions the three other meanings, as follows: (1) اْلإعْتِبَار (consideration), as in أَلَمْ يَرَوْا إِلَى الطَّيْرِ مُسَخَّرَاتٍ فِي جَوِّ السَّمَاءِ (النحل: ٧٩) "Have, then, they [who deny the truth] never considered the birds, enabled [by God] to fly in mid-air, ..." (Q. 16:79, Asad); (2) السَّمَاع (hearing), as in وَإِذَا رَأَيْتَ الَّذِينَ يَخُوضُونَ فِي آَيَاتِنَا (الأنعام: ٦٨) "Now, whenever thou hear such as indulge in [blasphemous] talk about Our messages, ..." (Q. 6:68); and (3) التَّعَجُّب (wonder, astonishment, amazement, surprise), as in أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ يُزَكُّونَ أَنْفُسَهُمْ (النساء: ٤٩) "Hast thou not been surprised at those who consider themselves pure?..." (Q. 4:49), and أَلَمْ تَرَ إِلَى الَّذِينَ يَزْعُمُونَ أَنَّهُمْ آَمَنُوا بِمَا أُنْزِلَ إِلَيْكَ (النساء: ٦٠) "Hast thou not been surprised at those who claim that they believe in that which is revealed unto thee..." (Q. 4:60).[356]
The term ta‘ajjub is usually translated as "wonder", "astonishment" or "amazement". However, I have chosen “surprise" in translating this term in the above verses, since this word "can also suggest a certain amount of moral condemnation." [357] This "certain amount of condemnation" is also found in the above verses. The first verse was revealed in the cases of the Arabs in the early period of Islam, the Jews and the Christians: The Arabs liked to praise and flatter each other. They claimed to be pure and said that the sins they committed in the day time would be forgiven at night, and vice versa, and therefore were sinless like babies (al-D.ah.h.āk's and al-Suddī's interpretation). The Jews considered themselves "God's chosen people" (see Q. 5:18) and therefore were destined for His grace, whereas the Christians believed in "Jesus's vicarious atonement" for the sins of man. The second verse deals with those who reject the laws of God in general and the hypocrites in particular. [358]
33. النِّسْـيَان (forgetfulness, oblivion)
Two meanings of nisyān in the Qur’ān are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. ضِدُّ اْلحِفْظ (the opposite to remembering), as in فَإِنِّي نَسِيتُ الْحُوتَ (الكهف: ٦٣ ) "... behold, I forgot about the fish..." (Q. 18:63, Asad).[359]
b. التَّرْك (omission, neglect, abandonment, leaving), as in وَلَقَدْ عَهِدْنَا إِلَى آَدَمَ مِنْ قَبْلُ فَنَسِيَ وَلَمْ نَجِدْ لَهُ عَزْمًا (طه: ١١٥) "And verily We made a covenant of old with Adam, but he neglected it, and We found no firmness of purpose in him." (Q. 20:115). [360] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās according to al-T.abarsī. Ibn Zayd's interpretation is that Adam overlooked the covenant and unintentionally made the mistake by eating the prohibited fruit.[361]
34. الصَّـاعِقَة (bolt of lightning, thunderbolt, thunder) and الصَّعِــق (strike of lightning, the act of stunning or being stunned, unconsciousness)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of s.ā‘iqah and s.a‘aq in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلمَوْت (death) as in وَنُفِخَ فِي الصُّورِ فَصَعِقَ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاوَاتِ وَمَنْ فِي الْأَرْضِ (الزمر: ٦٨) "And [on that Day,] the trumpet [of judgment] will be sounded, and all [creatures] that are in the heavens and all that are on earth will die,..." (Q. 39:68).[362]
b. اْلعَذَاب (punishment), as in فَإِنْ أَعْرَضُوا فَقُلْ أَنْذَرْتُكُمْ صَاعِقَةً مِثْلَ صَاعِقَةِ عَادٍ وَثَمُودَ (حم: ١٣) "But if they turn away, say: 'I warn you of [the coming of] a thunderbolt of punishment like the thunderbolt [that fell upon the tribes] of ‘Ād and Thamūd.'" (Q. 41:13, Asad). [363]
c. نَارٌمِنَ السَّحَاب (fire from the cloud), as in وَيُرْسِلُ الصَّوَاعِقَ فَيُصِيبُ بِهَا مَنْ يَشَاءُ (الرعد: ١٣) "...; and He [it is Who] lets loose the thunderbolts and strikes with them whom He wills." (Q. 13:13, Asad). [364]
Another meaning of the term which is not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah is اْلغَشِيّ (unconsciousness), as in وَخَرَّ مُوسَى صَعِقًا (الأعراف: ١٤٣) "...; and Moses fell down in a swoon...." (Q. 7:143). [365] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, al-H.asan and Ibn Zayd. Moses was unconscious and later became conscious again, as the verse continues with فَلَمَّا أَفَاقَ "And when he came to himself..." (Q. 7:143).[366]
35. اْلأَخْـذ (taking, accepting, receiving, seizing)
According to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of akhdh from which other meanings are metaphorically derived is "to take with hand". [367] He does not include it as one of the meanings of the term in the Qur’ān, and therefore, he does not give us any example from it. However, Tiflīsī mentions an example from the Qur’ān in which the term akhdh means the taking itself, namely, وَإِذْ أَخَذَ رَبُّكَ مِنْ بَنِي آَدَمَ مِنْ ظُهُورِهِمْ ذُرِّيَّتَهُمْ (الأعراف: ١٧٢) "And whenever thy Sustainer takes their offspring from the loins of the children of Adam,..." (Q. 7:172).[368]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three metaphorical meanings of akhdh in the Qur’ān as follows:
a. اْلقَبُوْل (acceptance), as in إِنْ أُوتِيتُمْ هَذَا فَخُذُوهُ (المائدة: ٤١) "If such-and-such teaching] is vouchsafed unto you, accept it;..." (Q. 5:41, Asad).[369]
b. اْلحَبْسُ وَ اْلأَسْر (arrest and taking a prisoner, detaining), as in قَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الْعَزِيزُ إِنَّ لَهُ أَبًا شَيْخًا كَبِيرًا فَخُذْ أَحَدَنَا مَكَانَهُ (يوسف: ٧٨) "They said: 'O thou great one! Behold, he has a father, a very old man: detain, therefore, one of us in his stead...." (Q. 12:78, Asad). [370]
c. التَّعْذِيْب (act of punishment, torture), as in وَكَذَلِكَ أَخْذُ رَبِّكَ إِذَا أَخَذَ الْقُرَى وَهِيَ ظَالِمَةٌ إِنَّ أَخْذَهُ أَلِيمٌ شَدِيدٌ (هود: ١٠٢) "And such is thy Sustainer’s punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] whenever He takes to task any community that is given to evildoing: verily, His punishing grasp [i.e., punishment] is grievous, severe!." (Q. 11:102, Asad).[371] Al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī mention one more meaning of akhdh in the Qur’ān, namely, اْلقَتْل (killing), as in وَهَمَّتْ كُلُّ أُمَّةٍ بِرَسُولِهِمْ لِيَأْخُذُوهُ (المؤمن: ٥) "... and each of those communities schemed to kill the messenger sent unto them,..." (Q. 40:5).[372] In the Arabic expression ذَهَبَ بَنُوْ فُلانٍ وَ مَنْ أَخَذَ أَخْذَهُمْ the term akhdh means "manners", "a way of life" or "disposition". Therefore, the above expression means "The sons of So-and-so and those who took to their way of life - and adopt their manners or disposition - went away."[373]
36. السُّلْطَان (strength, might, force, power, authority)
There are two meanings of sult.ān in the Qur’ān given by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. اْلمُلْكُ وَاْلقَهْر (power and force), as in وَمَا كَانَ لِيَ عَلَيْكُمْ مِنْ سُلْطَانٍ إِلَّا أَنْ دَعَوْتُكُمْ فَاسْتَجَبْتُمْ (إبراهيم: ٢٢) ".... Yet I had no power at all over you: I but called you - and you responded unto me...." (Q. 14:22, Asad).[374]
b. الحُجَّـة (argument, evident, proof), as in وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا مُوسَى بِآَيَاتِنَا وَسُلْطَانٍ مُبِينٍ (المؤمن: ٢٣) “And verily We sent Moses with Our revelations and a clear proof..." (Q. 40:23).[375]
37. اْلبَأْسُ وَاْلبَأْسَاء (might, strength and distress)
There are three meanings of ba’s and ba’sā’ mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. الشِّدَّة (misfortune, hardship, affliction), as in وَلَقَدْ أَرْسَلْنَا إِلَى أُمَمٍ مِنْ قَبْلِكَ فَأَخَذْنَاهُمْ بِالْبَأْسَاءِ وَالضَّرَّاءِ (الأنعام: ٤٢) "And, indeed, We sent Our messages unto people before thy time, [O Prophet,] and visited them with misfortune and hardship..." (Q. 6:42, Asad).[376]
b. الشِّدَّةُ بِاْلعَذَاب (severe punishment), as in فَلَمَّا رَأَوْا بَأْسَنَا قَالُوا آَمَنَّا بِاللَّهِ وَحْدَهُ (المؤمن: ٨٤) "And, then, when they [clearly] beheld Our punishment, they said: ’We have come to believe in the One God, ..." (Q. 40:84, Asad).[377]
c. الشِّدَّةُ بِالْقِتَال (the strength in fighting), as in عَسَى اللَّهُ أَنْ يَكُفَّ بَأْسَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا (النساء: ٨٤) ".... Allah may well curb the strength in fighting of those who disbelieve ..." (Q. 4:84).[378]
38. اْلخَلْق (creation, making)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of khalq from the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. التَّقْدِيْر (the act of measuring, determining the measure, proportion, or the like, of a thing) which is, according to Ibn Qutaybah, the basic meaning of khalq, is derived from the Arabic expressionخَالِقَةُ اْلأَدِيْم ("assessor of skin"), namely, the woman who assesses and measures a piece of leather before cutting it to be made into something such as a waterskin or a haversack. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qur’ān, but from Zuhayr's poem praising a person who carries out what he has determined to do as follows:
وَلَأَنْتَ تَفْرِيْ مَا خَلَقْتَ وَ بَعْـ * ـضُ اْلقَوْمِ يَخْلُقُ ثُمَّ لاَ يَفْرِي
“And thou indeed cuttest [namely, execute] what
thou hast measured [namely, planned]; but some of
the people measure [namely, plan to do something]
then will not cut [namely, execute it].”
(Lane's translation).[379]
b. التَّخَرُّص (fabricating lies). The Arabic expression حَدَّثَنَا فُلاَنٌ بَأَحَادِيْث الخَلْق means "So-and-so related to us legends, fabricated lies." [380] Lane's translation and explanation of the above expression is as follows: "Such a one related to us fictitious tales or stories, such as are deemed pretty, or such as are told by night (for entertainment).”[381] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: إِنْ هَذَا إِلَّا خُلُقُ الْأَوَّلِينَ (الشعراء: ١٣٧)“This is but a fable [namely, fabricated lies] of the men of old." (Q. 26:137).[382] This variant reading, khalq al-awwalīn ("the fables of the men of old"), was that of Ibn Kathīr, al-Kisā’ī, Abū Ja‘far and Abū ‘Amr ibn al-‘Alā’. Another variant reading, khuluq al-awwalīn ("the tradition and religion of the men of old"), was that of the qurrā’ of Madinah in general except Abū Ja‘far, and of Kūfah of later generations in general. Commenting on this reading Ibn ‘Abbās said that the people of ‘Ād told their prophet Hūd that they did what they did according to their ancestors' tradition and religion. [383] This reading was chosen by al-Farrā’ and Ibn Kathīr. [384]
c. التَّصْوِيْر (shaping), as in وَإِذْ تَخْلُقُ مِنَ الطِّينِ كَهَيْئَةِ الطَّيْرِ بِإِذْنِي (المائدة: ١١٠) "... and how thou didst shape of clay as it were the likeness of a bird by My permission...." (Q. 5:110, Pickthall).[385]
d. اْلإنْشَاءُ وَاْلإبْتِدَاء (creating and beginning something), as in هُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَكُمْ مِنْ نَفْسٍ وَاحِدَةٍ وَجَعَلَ مِنْهَا زَوْجَهَا (الأعراف: ١٨٩) "It is He who has created you [all] out of one living entity, and out of it brought into being its mate, ..." (Q. 7:189, Asad).[386]
e. الدِّيْن (ordinance, decree, religion), as in لَا تَبْدِيلَ لِخَلْقِ اللَّهِ (الروم: ٣٠) ".... There is no altering Allah's ordinance ..." (Q. 30:30).[387] It means that Allah's decree pertaining to tawh.īd (the Oneness of Allah), justice, and sincerity in worship have to be observed firmly by people. This is the interpretation of al-D.ah.h.āk, Mujāhid, Qatādah, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, Ibrāhīm al-Nakhā‘ī and Ibn Zayd.[388] However, ‘Ikrimah renders another interpretation on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Umar, that the verse means that there is no change in Allah's creation, and therefore, it is prohibited to castrate the livestock.[389]
39. الرَّجْـم (throwing or casting of stones, stoning)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions five meanings of rajm as follows:
a. الرَّمْـي (throwing), which is the basic meaning of rajm,[390] as in وَلَقَدْ زَيَّنَّا السَّمَاءَ الدُّنْيَا بِمَصَابِيحَ وَجَعَلْنَاهَا رُجُومًا لِلشَّيَاطِينِ (الملك: ٥) “And indeed, We have adorned the skies nearest to the earth with lamps [namely, stars], and We have made them missiles for casting at the devils..." (Q. 67:5). [391] This is one interpretation. Another interpretation is that the stars are made as a means of guessing and "missiles thrown at the unseen" (رُجُوْمًا بِاْلغَيْب) by the devils of mankind, namely, astrologers, using stars as guides to the unknown.[392]
b. اْلقَـْتل (killing), as in قَالُوا إِنَّا تَطَيَّرْنَا بِكُمْ لَئِنْ لَمْ تَنْتَهُوا لَنَرْجُمَنَّكُمْ (يس: ١٨) "Said [the others]: 'Truly, we augur evil from you. If you desist not, we will surely kill you...'" (Q. 36:18).[393] Ibn Qutaybah states that it is reported that Qābīl (Cain) killed his brother Hābīl (Abel) by throwing (rajm) stones at him. Since he was the first man killed, the act of killing is metaphorically called rajm, although without using stones. [394] This is the interpretation of Qatādah, while that of Mujāhid isلَأشْتُمَنَّكُمْ ("I shall surely abuse you").[395]
c. الشَّتْم (abuse, scold, vilification), as in قَالَ أَرَاغِبٌ أَنْتَ عَنْ آَلِهَتِي يَا إِبْرَاهِيمُ لَئِنْ لَمْ تَنْتَهِ لَأَرْجُمَنَّكَ (مريم: ٤٦) "He answered: 'Dost thou dislike my gods, O Abraham? Indeed, if thou desist not, I shall surely abuse thee..." (Q. 19:46).[396] This is the interpretation of al-Suddī, Ibn Jurayj, and al-Farrā’, whereas "stoning" as the meaning of rajm here is the interpretation of al-H.asan and al-Jubbā’ī.[397]
d. الظَّـنّ (guess, assumption), as in سَيَقُولُونَ ثَلَاثَةٌ رَابِعُهُمْ كَلْبُهُمْ وَيَقُولُونَ خَمْسَةٌ سَادِسُهُمْ كَلْبُهُمْ رَجْمًا بِالْغَيْبِ (الكهف: ٢٢) "[And in times to come] some will say, '[They were] three, the fourth of them being their dog,' while others will say, 'Five, with their dog as the sixth of them’ - idly guessing at something of which they can have no knowledge - ..." (Q. 18:22, Asad). [398] This is the interpretation of Qatādah and Abū ‘Ubaydah.[399] According ti Ibn ‘Abbās the term رَجْم meaning ظَنّ is the language of Hudhayl.[400]
e. اللَّعْن (curse, banishment). Satan is called rajīm (outcast) because he is repelled with shooting stars (meteors) from ascending to heaven. No example from the Qur’ān is given by Ibn Qutaybah. Others give the following verse: فَإِذَا قَرَأْتَ الْقُرْآنَ فَاسْتَعِذْ بِاللَّهِ مِنَ الشَّيْطَانِ الرَّجِيمِ (النحل: ٩٨) "Now whenever thou happen to read this Qur’ān, seek refuge with Allah from Satan, the accursed [namely, cast at with curse]." (Q. 16:98, Asad).[401]
40. السَّعْي (quick movement, effort)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of sa‘y in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلإسْرَاعُ فِي ْالمَشْي (walking quickly), or العدو (running) as in وَجَاءَ رَجُلٌ مِنْ أَقْصَى الْمَدِينَةِ يَسْعَى (القصص: ٢٠ ) "And [then and there] a man came running from the farthermost end of the city,..." (Q. 28:20, Asad).[402]
b. اْلمَشْي (walking), as in فَلَمَّا بَلَغَ مَعَهُ السَّعْيَ قَالَ يَا بُنَيَّ إِنِّي أَرَى فِي الْمَنَامِ أَنِّي أَذْبَحُكَ (الصافات: ١٠٢) "And when (his son) was old enough to walk with him, (Abraham) said: O my dear son, I have seen in a dream that I must sacrifice thee...." (Q. 37:102, Pickthall). [403] He was at an age where he could assist his father Abraham in his daily affairs according to Mujāhid and Abū ‘Ubaydah, which is approximately thirteen years old. According to Ibn Kathīr, this is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās, ‘Ikrimah, Sa‘īd ibn Jubayr, ‘At.ā’ and Zayd ibn Aslam. This interpretation is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation is that it was the age where he worked for Allah and worshipped Him, according to al-H.asan, al-Kalbī, Ibn Zayd and Muqātil.[404]
c. اْلعَمَل (action, work, effort), as in إِنَّ سَعْيَكُمْ لَشَتَّى (الليل: ٤) "Verily, your effort is dispersed (towards divergent ends)." (Q. 92:4).[405]
d. اْلجِـدّ (striving, labouring) as in وَالَّذِينَ سَعَوْا فِي آَيَاتِنَا مُعَاجِزِينَ أُولَئِكَ لَهُمْ عَذَابٌ مِنْ رِجْزٍ أَلِيمٌ (سبأ: ٥) “whereas for those who strive against Our messages, seeking to defeat their purpose, there is grievous suffering in store as an outcome of [their] vileness." (Q. 34:5, Asad).[406]
Despite the difference of meanings, Ibn Qutaybah states that the basic meaning of the term sa‘y is walking quickly (الإسْرَاعُ فِي ْالمَشْي). This is also the view of Ibn al-Jawzī. [407]
41. الْمُحْصَنَات (protected women)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of muh.s.anāt as follows:
a. ذَوَاتُ اْلأَزْوَاج (married women), for they are protected by their husbands, as in وَالْمُحْصَنَاتُ مِنَ النِّسَاءِ إِلَّا مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُكُمْ (النساء: ٢٤) "And [forbidden to you are] all married women other than those whom you rightfully possess [through wedlock]..." (Q. 4:24, Asad). [408] Al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarī mention both dhawāt al-azwāj and al-‘afā'if (chaste women) for the meaning of al-muh.s.anāt in this verse.[409] This is also the view of Tha‘lab who says that every ‘afīfah (a chaste woman) is a muh.s.anah (a protected woman) and a muh.s.inah (a self-protecting woman), whereas every married woman is a muh.s.anah only.[410]
b. اْلحَرَائِر (free women, not slaves), although they are unmarried. Unlike slaves, free women can protect as well as be protected. The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: وَمَنْ لَمْ يَسْتَطِعْ مِنْكُمْ طَوْلًا أَنْ يَنْكِحَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ الْمُؤْمِنَاتِ فَمِنْ مَا مَلَكَتْ أَيْمَانُكُمْ (النساء: ٢٥) "And as for those of you who, owing to circumstances, are not in a position to marry free believing women, [let them marry] believing maidens from among those whom you rightfully possess..." (Q. 4.25, Asad). [411]
c. الْعَفَائِف (chaste women), as in وَالَّذِينَ يَرْمُونَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ (النور: ٤) "And as for those who accuse chaste women [of adultery]..." (Q. 24:4, Asad).[412]
42. اْلمَتَاع (possession, pleasure, object of delight)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us four meanings of matā‘ as follows:
a. اْلمُـدَّة (period of time, limited or appointed time, term), as in وَلَكُمْ فِي الْأَرْضِ مُسْتَقَرٌّ وَمَتَاعٌ إِلَى حِينٍ (البقرة: ٣٦) “;... and on earth you shall have your abode and a period of time till the end (of the appointed time)." (Q. 2:36). Pickthall, Asad and Ali respectively translate matā‘ here as "provision", "livelihood" and "means of livelihood", while according to Ibn Qutaybah it means "a period of time".[413] However, Ibn Qutaybah interprets "enjoyment" (mut‘ah) as the meaning of matā‘ in his Tafsīr. He also interprets the meaning of إِلَى حِينٍ in this verse as إِلىَ أَجَل ("till the oppointed time") which is commonly understood as "till the time of death". [414] Al-Zamakhsharī interprets matā ‘as "enjoyment of life" (تَمَتُّعٌ بِالْعَيْش) , while that of al-T.abarsī is "enjoyment" (إِسْتِمْتَاع) , and h.īn as "the time of death", "the end of the appointed time", or "the day of Resurrection".[415] Ibn Qutaybah's understanding of the verse is that Allah gave Adam temporary life (or enjoyment) on this earth, which would end with death. This life is in contrast with life in Heaven which is permanent and will not end with death.
b. اْلآلاَتُ الَّتِيْ تُنْتَفَعُ بِهَا (tools, utensils), as in وَمِمَّا يُوقِدُونَ عَلَيْهِ فِي النَّارِ ابْتِغَاءَ حِلْيَةٍ أَوْ مَتَاعٍ زَبَدٌ مِثْلُهُ (الرعد: ١٧) "...and, likewise, from that [metal] which they smelt in the fire in order to make ornaments or utensils, [there rises] scum...." (Q. 13:17, Asad). [416]
c. اْلمَنْفَعَة (benefit, avail), as in لَيْسَ عَلَيْكُمْ جُنَاحٌ أَنْ تَدْخُلُوا بُيُوتًا غَيْرَ مَسْكُونَةٍ فِيهَا مَتَاعٌ لَكُمْ (النور: ٢٩) "[On the other hand] you will incur no sin if you [freely] enter houses not intended for living in but serving a purpose useful to you:..." (Q. 24:29).[417]
d. مُتْعَةُ اْلمُطَلَّقَة (the benefit, provision or maintenance a divorced woman gets from her husband after divorce other than the dowry).[418] Ibn Qutaybah does not give us an example for this meaning. Others give us the following verse: وَلِلْمُطَلَّقَاتِ مَتَاعٌ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ حَقًّا عَلَى الْمُتَّقِينَ (البقرة: ٢٤١) "And the divorced women, too, shall have [a right to] maintenance in a goodly manner: this is a duty for all who are conscious of God." (Q. 2:241, Asad). [419]
43. اْلحِسَاب (counting, reckoning, calculation)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of h.isāb in the Qur’ān, as follows:
a. اْلكَثِيْر (plenty, abundance). The expression أَحْسِبُ فُلاَنًا means "I gave him what is sufficient for him" (أَعْطَيْتُهُ مَا يَحْسِبُه أَيْ مَا يَكْفِيْه) . The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: (النبأ: ٣٦) جَزَاءً مِنْ رَبِّكَ عَطَاءً حِسَابًا “[All this will be] a reward from thy Sustainer, an abundant gift." (Q. 78:36).[420]
b.اْلجَزَاء (repayment, recompense, punishment), as in إِنْ حِسَابُهُمْ إِلَّا عَلَى رَبِّي لَوْ تَشْعُرُونَ (الشعراء: ١١٣) “Their recompense rests with none but my Sustainer: if you could but understand [this]!” (Q. 26:113Asad).[421]
c. الْمُحَاسَبَة (reckoning, accounting), as in فَسَوْفَ يُحَاسَبُ حِسَابًا يَسِيرًا (الإ نشقاق: ٨) "He will in time be called to account with an easy accounting." (Q. 84:8, Asad).[422]
44. اْلأَمْـر (order, command, decree, authority, affair)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of amr, as follows:
a. اْلقَضَاء (divine decree), as in أَلَا لَهُ الْخَلْقُ وَالْأَمْرُ (الأعراف: ٥٤) "His verily is all creation and divine decree..." (Q. 7:54). [423]
b. الدِّيْن (religion) as in فَتَقَطَّعُوا أَمْرَهُمْ بَيْنَهُمْ زُبُرًا (المؤمنون: ٥٣) "But they (mankind) have broken their religion among them into sects, ..." (Q. 23:53, Pickthall). [424]
c. اْلقَوْل (word, speech, remark, statement, report, account), as in إِذْ يَتَنَازَعُونَ بَيْنَهُمْ أَمْرَهُمْ (الكهف: ٢١) ".... When (the people of the city) disputed their statements among themselves, ..." (Q. 18:21).[425]
d. الْعَذَاب (punishment), as in وَقَالَ الشَّيْطَانُ لَمَّا قُضِيَ الْأَمْرُ (إبراهيم: ٢٢) "And when punishment will be decided, Satan will say..." (Q. 14:22). [426]
e. الْقِيَامَة (resurrection), as in أَتَى أَمْرُ اللَّهِ فَلَا تَسْتَعْجِلُوهُ (النحل: ١)"The commandment of Allah [namely, the resurrection] is [bound] to come: do not therefore, call for its speedy advent!..." (Q. 16:1).[427] This is Ibn ‘Abbās's interpretation. Other interpretations are: Allah's punishment on disbelievers among the idolaters, according to al-H.asan and Ibn Jurayj, and Allah's laws and injunctions, according to al-D.ah.h.āk.[428]
f. اْلقِيَامَةُ أَوِ اْلمَوْت (resurrection or death), as in وَتَرَبَّصْتُمْ وَارْتَبْتُمْ وَغَرَّتْكُمُ الْأَمَانِيُّ حَتَّى جَاءَ أَمْرُ اللَّهِ (الحديد: ١٤) "... and you were hesitant, and you were doubtful; and your wishful thinking beguiled you until Allah's command [namely, resurrection or death] came to pass; ..." (Q. 57:14). [429]
g. اْلوَحْي (inspiration, revelation), as in يَتَنَزَّلُ الْأَمْرُ بَيْنَهُنَّ (الطلاق: ١٢) "Through all of them descends His inspiration,..." (Q. 65:12).[430]
h. الذَّنْب (offence, sin, crime, misdeed), as in فَذَاقَتْ وَبَالَ أَمْرِهَا وَكَانَ عَاقِبَةُ أَمْرِهَا خُسْرًا (الطلاق: ٩) "And thus they had to taste the evil outcome of their own offence, and the consequence of their offence was loss." (Q. 65:9). [431]
i. كُلُّ شَيْء (everything), as in أَلَا إِلَى اللَّهِ تَصِيرُ الْأُمُورُ (الشورى: ٥٣) "....Behold, all things tend towards Allah" (Q. 42:53).[432]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah mentions nine meanings of the term ‘amr. They are only about half of the meanings given by Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī who mention respectively thirteen, fourteen, sixteen, and nineteen meanings. This indicates Ibn Qutaybah's brief account in dealing with the term in particular, and al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā‘ir in the Qur’ān in general.
Among the meanings of ‘amr not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his Ta’wīl, are the following:
a. قَتْلُ كُفَّارِ مَكَّةِ بِبَدْر (the execution of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr), as in (الأنفال: ٤٤) لِيَقْضِيَ اللَّهُ أَمْرًا كَانَ مَفْعُولًا "..., (it was) that Allah might conclude a thing [namely, the killing of the infidels of Makkah in the battle of Badr] that must be done..." (Q. 8:44).[433]
b. فَتْحُ مَكَّة (the conquest of Makkah), as in فَتَرَبَّصُوا حَتَّى يَأْتِيَ اللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِ (التوبة: ٢٤) "... then wait till Allah makes manifest His will [namely, the conquest of Makkah]..." (Q. 9:24).[4344] This is the interpretation of Ibn ‘Abbās and Mujāhid, whereas according to al-H.asan it is the punishment which will be inflicted upon disbelievers.[435]
c. قَتْلُ بَنِيْ قُرَيْظَةَ وَجَلاءُ بَنَِي النَّضِيْر (the execution of Banī Qurayz.ah and the expulsion of Banī al-Nad.īr tribes) as in فَاعْفُوا وَاصْفَحُوا حَتَّى يَأْتِيَ اللَّهُ بِأَمْرِهِ ه (البقرة: ١٠٩) ".... Forgive and be indulgent (toward them) until Allah manifests His will [namely, the execution of Banī Qurayz.ah and the expulsion of Banī al-Nad.īr]..." (Q. 2:109).[436]
d. النَّصْر (victory), as in يَقُولُونَ هَلْ لَنَا مِنَ الْأَمْرِ مِنْ شَيْءٍ قُلْ إِنَّ الْأَمْرَ كُلَّهُ لِلَّهِ ه (آل عمران: ١٥٤) ".... They said: 'Have we any part in (achieving) victory?' Say (O Muhammad): 'The victory belongs wholly to Allah....'" (Q. 3:154).[437]
e. اْلمَشْوَرَة (consultation, suggestion), as in قَالَ الْمَلَأُ مِنْ قَوْمِ فِرْعَوْنَ إِنَّ هَذَا لَسَاحِرٌ عَلِيمٌ يُرِيدُ أَنْ يُخْرِجَكُمْ مِنْ أَرْضِكُمْ فَمَاذَا تَأْمُرُونَ (الأعراف: ١٠٩-١١٠) "The great ones among Pharaoh's people said: 'Verily, this is indeed a sorcerer of great knowledge who wants to drive you out of your land!' [Said Pharaoh:] 'What, then, do you advise?'" (Q. 7:109-10, Asad).[439]
f. اْلحِذْر (caution, precaution), as in وَإِنْ تُصِبْكَ مُصِيبَةٌ يَقُولُوا قَدْ أَخَذْنَا أَمْرَنَا مِنْ قَبْلُ (التوبة: ٥٠) ".... and should misfortune befall thee, they will say [to themselves], 'We have already taken our precautions beforehand!'..." (Q. 9:50, Asad).
g. اْْلغَرَق (drowning), as in قَالَ لَا عَاصِمَ الْيَوْمَ مِنْ أَمْرِ اللَّهِ (هود: ٤٣) "(Noah) said: Today there is no protection from Allah's commandment [namely, drowning]..." (Q. 11:43). [440]
h. اْلأَمْر (order, command), as in إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَأْمُرُكُمْ أَنْ تُؤَدُّوا الْأَمَانَاتِ إِلَى أَهْلِهَا (النساء: ٥٨) "Behold, Allah commands you to deliver all that you have been entrusted with unto those who are entitled thereto,..." (Q. 4:58).[441]
i. اْلكَثْرَة (plenty, greatness in number), as in وَإِذَا أَرَدْنَا أَنْ نُهْلِكَ قَرْيَةً أَمَرْنَا مُتْرَفِيهَا (الإسراء: ١٦) "And when We decide to destroy a community We increase the number of its people who have lost themselves entirely in the pursuit of pleasures,..." (Q.17:16)[442] There are four variant readings of amarnā. (1) amarnā which is the common reading; (2) āmarnā which is the reading of ‘Alī, Qatādah, and Abū al-‘Āliyah according to al-T.abarsī, and that of Ibn ‘Abbās according to al-Qurt.ubī; (3) amirnā which is the reading of al-H.asan and Yah.yá ibn Ya‘mar according to al-T.abarsī; and (4) ammarnā which is the reading of Ibn ‘Abbās, Abū ‘Uthmān al-Nahdī, and Abū Ja‘far Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alī according to al-T.abarsī, whereas according to al-Qurt.ubī it is that of Abū al-‘Āliyah, Mujāhid and al-H.asan beside Abū ‘Uthmān al-Nahdī. The first three readings mean "we increased their number", the last means "we made them rulers". [443]
We have seen that Ibn Qutaybah examined al-wujūh wa ’l-naz.ā’ir in the Qur’ān very briefly. We have also seen that scholars in later generations treated this field of study very extensively, so that sometimes they included the commentaries of the mufassirīn and gave the specific meanings rather than the wujūh of the terms they were dealing with. It is true that the interpretations of these early mufassirīn were compiled and became a science by itself. We also have seen that despite the differences and variety of interpretations of a certain verse or word, many of them are reconciliable and run together, and this contributes to further understanding of the Qur’ānic texts.
C. Meanings of Particles
Ibn Qutaybah deals with thirty-three particles in his Ta’wīl in a chapter entitled تَفْسِيْرُ حُرُوْفِ اْلمَعَانِيْ وَ مَا شَاكَلَهَا مِنَ اْلأَفْعَالِ اَّلتِيْ لاَ تَنْصَرِفُ ("The Interpretation of Particles and Uninflected Verbs Similar to Them"). The term حُرُوْفُ اْلمَعَانِي (lit. "letters of meanings") for the particles means meaningful letters, which are the opposite of the حُرُوْفُ اْلهِجَاء (alphabetical letters) which have no meaning. These particles are as follows:
1. كَأَيَّنْ (how many a)
The particle ka’ayyin means kam (how many a), as in وَكَأَيِّنْ مِنْ قَرْيَةٍ عَتَتْ عَنْ أَمْرِ رَبِّهَا وَرُسُلِهِ (الطلاق: ٨) “And how many a community has turned with disdain from the commandment of its Sustainer and His apostles..." (Q. 65:8, Asad).[444] The term ka’ayyin can be read as kā’in which is more eloquent in Ibn Qutaybah's view. The example of the latter is in the following poem of Zuhayr:
وَ كَائِنْ تَرَى مِنْ صَامِتٍ لَكَ مُعْجِبٍ * زِيَادَتُهُ أَوْ نَقْصُهُ فِي التَّكَلُّمِ
“How many a silent person whom you admire; his [only]
merit or demerit (lies) in [his] speaking.”[445]
2. كَيْفَ (how)
Kayfa has two meanings:
a. عَلىَ أَيِّ حَال (in what condition), as in the expression كَيْفَ أَنْتَ (how are you) meaning "in what condition are you"? It is here an interrogative particle.
b. التَّعَجُّب (wonder, surprise), as in كَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ بِاللَّهِ وَكُنْتُمْ أَمْوَاتًا فَأَحْيَاكُمْ (البقرة: ٢٨) "How can you refuse to acknowledge God, seeing that you were lifeless and He gave you life,..." (Q. 2:28, Asad).[446] According to al-Zamakhsharī, it implies inkār (rejection, reproach) and ta‘ajjub, whereas according to al-Farrā’ it means ta‘ajjub and tawbīkh (reproof, reproach).[447]
Ibn Fāris gives more details about kayfa. He mentions three meanings of it, two of which are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above. The other meaning is "in whatever condition", as in the expression لَأُكْرِمَنَّكَ كَيْفَ أَنْتَ meaning "I shall surely welcome you in whatever condition you have been عَلىَ أَيِّ حَال)ٍ (كُُنْتَ ." However, he mentions three other meanings, as follows:
a. نَفْي (negation), as in كَيْفَ يَهْدِي اللَّهُ قَوْمًا كَفَرُوا بَعْدَ إِيمَانِهِمْ (آل عمران: ٨٦) "How would God bestow His guidance upon people who have resolved to deny the truth after having attained to faith,..." (Q. 3:86, Asad). It means that Allah will never guide such people.
b. تَوْبِيْخ (reproach), as in وَكَيْفَ تَكْفُرُونَ وَأَنْتُمْ تُتْلَى عَلَيْكُمْ آَيَاتُ اللَّهِ (آل عمران: ١٠١) "And how could you deny the truth when it is unto you that God's messages are being conveyed, ..." (Q. 3:101, Asad).
c. تَوْكِيْد (emphasis), as in فَكَيْفَ إِذَا جِئْنَا مِنْ كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ بِشَهِيدٍ (النساء: ٤١) "How, then, [will the sinners fare on Judgment Day,] when We shall bring forward a witness from within every community,..." (Q. 4:41). The particle kayfa here emphasises the content of the previous verse, namely, إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يَظْلِمُ مِثْقَالَ ذَرَّةٍ (النساء: ٤٠) "Verily, Allah does not wrong [anyone] by as much as an atom's weight;..." (Q. 4:40). It means, Allah would never wrong anybody, not even as much as the weight of an atom (dharrah) in this world, let alone in the Hereafter when He brings of every community a witness...." [448]
Al-Zarkashī gives two more meanings of kayfa other than those mentioned above, namely:
a. لِلتَّحْذِيْر (to give warning), as in فَانْظُرْ كَيْفَ كَانَ عَاقِبَةُ مَكْرِهِمْ (النمل: ٥١) “Behold, then, what all their scheming came to in the end:…” (Q. 27:51, Asad).
b. لِلتَّنْبِيْه (to allert, to call attention) and لِلْإعْتِبَار (to give a lesson, a deterrent example) as in انْظُرْ كَيْفَ فَضَّلْنَا بَعْضَهُمْ عَلَى بَعْضٍ “Behold how We bestow [on earth] more bounty on some of them than on others;” as the verse continues with وَلَلْآَخِرَةُ أَكْبَرُ دَرَجَاتٍ وَأَكْبَرُ تَفْضِيلًا (الإسراء: ٢١) “but [remember] the life to come will be far higher in degree and far greater in merit and bounty.” (Q. 17:21, Asad). [449]
3. سَـوَى , سِـَوى and سُـوَى (except, other than; equal, even)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of the word sawá and siwá as follows:
a. غَيْر (other than), as in the following Dhū al-Rummah's poem:
وَ مَا تَجَافَى اْلغَيْثُ عَنْهُ فَمَا بِهِ * سَوَاءَ الْحَمَامِ اْلحُضَّنِ حَاضِرُ
“And water, [namely, a watering place] avoided by rain
[namely, did not receive water from rain, but from a spring],
so that there was nothing in it [namely, the watering place]
other than green hatching doves.” [450]
The poet was speaking about a dry watering place, as it received its water solely from a spring. The supply of water was so minimal that green doves were able to build their nests and hatch their young in it.
b. وَسَـط (middle), as in فَلَنَأْتِيَنَّكَ بِسِحْرٍ مِثْلِهِ فَاجْعَلْ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكَ مَوْعِدًا لَا نُخْلِفُهُ نَحْنُ وَلَا أَنْتَ مَكَانًا سُوًى (طه: ٥٨) “[Pharaoh said to Moses:] 'But we can surely produce magic to match thine! So make a tryst between us and thee, which we shall not fail to keep - neither we nor thou - in a central place, [namely, equally distant for both sides]." (Q. 20:58).[451]
4. أَيـَّانَ (when)
According to al-Farrā’ and Ibn Qutaybah the particle ayyān is a combination of two words, أيُّ (which, what), and أَوَان (time), so that the expression أيُّ أَوَانmeans "at what time?” The first two letters in أَوَان, namely, أو are dropped and the particle becomes ان, which in turn, combined with اي and finally becomes أَيَّان. The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: أَمْوَاتٌ غَيْرُ أَحْيَاءٍ وَمَا يَشْعُرُونَ أَيَّانَ يُبْعَثُونَ (النحل: ٢١) “They are dead, not living, and they do not [even] know when they will be raised from the dead!" (Q. 16:21, Asad).[452]
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions several views about the origin of the term ayyān, as follows: (1) The same as above, namely, from أَيُّ and أَوَان; however, instead of dropping the first two letters of أَوَان, the first letter alif of أَوَان and the second letter yā’ in أَيُّ are dropped; the two words are combined together and become أَيْوَان; next, the letter و is changed into ي, so that it becomes أَيَّانَ; (2) It originates from the two words أَيُّ آن ("which time"); (3) It originates from the word أَيُّ in the pattern of فَعْلاَن , namely,[453] أَيَّان.
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions further details about the use of the particle ayyān. An unidentified grammarian says that it can be used for the past, whereas others, like Ibn Mālik and Abū H.ayyān, say that it is used exclusively for the future. It is used for questioning about a great event according to al-Sakkākī, while the common view among the Arabic grammarians is that, like the word matá, it can be used for any event. [454]
5. اْلآنَ (now, at present)
According to al-Farrā’, quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, the origin of الآنَ is أَوَان. The first letter (alif) was dropped, the second letter (wāw) was turned into alif which was combined with the remaining alif, and the word became in accusative case, namely, آنَ (āna). The definite article ال was added to it, and it became اْلآنَ (al-āna). The example given by Ibn Qutaybah is as follows: ءَالْآنَ وَقَدْ عَصَيْتَ قَبْلُ وَكُنْتَ مِنَ الْمُفْسِدِينَ (يونس: ٩١) “[But God said:] ‘Now? [thou repent, when it is too late?] When ever before this thou hast been rebelling [against Us], and hast been among those who spread corruption?’" (Q. 10:91, Asad).[455] This was said by Allah to Pharaoh who was repenting while he was drowning.
Al-Suyūt.ī gives us more details about the meaning of al-ān. He says that although the term means the present, it can also be used metaphorically for other than the present. A group of philologists specify the meaning of this term to indicate the boundary between the past and the future, although it could also mean what is close to either of the two (past or future), namely, what has just happened (the present perfect tense) as well as what is going to happen. Jamāl al-Dīn ibn Mālik (d. 672/1274) the author of the poems on grammar known as the Alfīyah ("The One Thousand Liner") states that the term al-ān is to indicate the whole present time, such as the time of doing or saying something, or some of this present time. The example of the past with some present time is the following Qur’ānic verse: الْآَنَ خَفَّفَ اللَّهُ عَنْكُمْ (الأنفال: ٦٦) “Now hath Allah lightened your burden ...” (Q. 8:66, Pickthall); it is like saying أَكَلْتُ اْلآن, meaning "I have eaten just now". The example of the future with some present time is as follows: فَمَنْ يَسْتَمِعِ الْآَنَ يَجِدْ لَهُ شِهَابًا رَصَدًا (الجن: ٩) "... and anyone who now [or ever] tries to listen will [likewise] find a flame lying in wait for him!" (Q. 72:9, Asad). Moreover, the use of al-ān here is in general sense, not restricted to the present.[456]
6. أَنَّـى (how, wherefrom)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two meanings of anná, as follows:
a. كَيْفَ (how) as in قَالَ أَنَّى يُحْيِي هَذِهِ اللَّهُ بَعْدَ مَوْتِهَا (البقرة: ٢٥٩) "He said: How could Allah bring this [township] back to life after its death?" (Q. 2:259). [457]
b. مِنْ أَيْنِ (wherefrom, whence), as in أَنَّى يَكُونُ لَهُ وَلَدٌ (الأنعام : ١٠١) "... where can He have a child from... " (Q. 6:101).[458]
Three different interpretations were given by the commentators concerning the meaning of anná in the following verse: فَأْتُوا حَرْثَكُمْ أَنَّى شِئْتُمْ (البقرة: ٢٢٣) “... go, then, unto your tilth as you may desire, ..." (Q. 2:223). It means: كَيْفَ according to Mujāhid, al-Farrā’ Ibn Qutaybah, and Ibn al-Jawzī;[459] مِنْ أَيْنَ according to Qatādah and al-Rabī‘; and مَتَى ("when") according to al-Daāk which is rejected by the philologists, as stated by al-T.abarsī, because the term anná never means "when".[460]
7. وَيْكَأَنَّ (alas, ah, wellady)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of wayka’anna, as follows:
a. أَلَمْ تَرَ (do you not see), which is the opinion of al-Kisā’ī, as in وَيْكَأَنَّ اللَّهَ يَبْسُطُ الرِّزْقَ لِمَنْ يَشَاءُ ... وَيْكَأَنَّهُ لَا يُفْلِحُ الْكَافِرُونَ (القصص: ٨٢) "Do you not see how Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will.... Do you not see how the disbelievers never prosper?" (Q. 28:82).[461]
b. أَوَلاَ يَعْلَمُ (does he not know) which, according to Ibn Qutaybah, is the interpretation of Qatādah and a shāhid for al-Kisā’ī’s interpretation, so that the above-mentioned verse means, "Does he not know that Allah enlarged the provision for whom He will....? Does he not know that the disbelievers never prosper?"[462]
c. رَحْمَـةً لَكَ (a mercy for you), which is, according to some unidentified linguists, the language of H.imyar. Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any example for this meaning.[463]
Al-Suyūt.ī adds details about the term wayka’anna and its origin, and states four views: that of al-Kisā’ī, al-Akhfash, al-Khalīl, and Ibn al-Anbārī. The term, according to al-Kisā’ī, is used for regret(تَنَدُّم) and wonder(تَعَجُّّب) . It is originally from وَيْلَكَ. The word كَ is a second person pronoun in the genitive form. According to al-Akhfash, وَيْ is a verbal noun (ism fi‘l) meaning "I wonder", كَ is the second person pronoun; أَنَّ is originally لِأَنَّ with the ellipsis of li. Therefore, the verse mentioned above means, according to al-Akhfash أَعْجَبُ لِأَنَّ اللهَ "I wonder because Allah ..." Al-Khalīl's view is that, simply stated, وَيْ stands alone, and كَأَنَّ is a separate word indicating investigation(تَحْقِيْق) , not similarity(تَشْبِيْه) , namely, it does not mean "as if" in this sense. Ibn al-Anbārī's view is that the term has three meanings: أَلَمْ تَرَ (“do you not see”), وَيْلَكَ (“woe unto you”), and that وَيْindicating wonder is joined with كَأَنَّ due to its frequent use; it is similar to the joining of words inيَبْنَأُمَّ which is derived from يَا إبِْنَ أُمِّي ("O son of my mother").[464]
8. كَأَنَّ (as if, as though)
The particle ka‘anna is a combination of the particle ka ("as", "like") and anna ("that"). It is used for a simile, such as the expression شَرِبَ شَرَابًا كَعَسَلٍ ("He drank a drink like honey") is similar to شَرِبَ شَرَابًا كَأَنَّهُ عَسَل ("He drank a drink as if it were honey"). It functions the same as ka if it were without tashdīd, and with the ellipsis of any pronoun attached to it, such as ka’annahu becomes ka’an in the following poem of Abū Muh.ammad ‘Abd Allāh ibn Barrī (d. 582/1187) to al-Mufad.d.al al-Nukrī, describing a horse:
جُمُوْمُ الشَّدِّ شَائِلَهُ الذُّنَابَى * وَهَادِيْهَا كَأَنْ جِذْعٌ سَحُوْقُ
“He is very strong; his tail is raised while galloping,
and his neck is like a long palm stump.”[465]
9. لاَتَ (not)
The particle lāta, as stated by Sībawayh, to some extent, is similar to laysa ("not to exist", "not to be"). Unlike laysa, lāta is indeclinable, as in فَنَادَوْا وَلَاتَ حِينَ مَنَاصٍ (ص: ٣) “..., and they called [unto Us] when it was no longer the time for escape." (Q. 38:3).[466]
According to some unidentified grammarians of the Baghdādī school ت in لَاتَ is separated from لَا (meaning "no"), and is connected with , حِينَ so that لَاتَ حِينَ was originally لَا تَحِينَ. Thisت is additional to حِينَ as well as to other words, such as الآنَ, which becomes تَلاَنَ. As a shāhid, they cite the poem of Abū Wajzah, as follows:
العَاطِفُوْنَ تَحِيْنَ مَا مِنْ عَاطِفٍ * وَ اْلمُطْعِمُوْنَ زَمَانَ مَا مِنْ مُطْعِمِ
“[They are] the compassionates when there is no compassionate,
and the feeders in the time when there is no feeder.” [467]
According to Ibn Qutaybah, lāta is the combination of lā with the additional h, so that lā becomes lāh, and later becomes lāta. It is like the word ثُمَّ (thumma) which becomes ثُمَّـه (thummah) and ثُمَّـةَ (thummata). He cites the view of Ibn al-A‘rābī who says that العَاطِفُوْنَ in the poem mentioned above was originally العَاطِفُوْنَه with the additional h, then it was started with حِينَ. However, if we join the two words, the h becomes ta; instead of saying al-‘āt.ifūnah h.īna mā we say al-‘āt.ifūnata h.īna ma.[468] This view of Ibn Qutaybah, despite his belonging to the Baghdādī school, is in line with that of Abū ‘Ubaydah, as well as the Kūfī and the Bas.rī grammarians. [469]
10. مَهْمَـا (whatever, whatsoever)
The particle mahmā functions as mā in recompense, such as وَقَالُوا مَهْمَا تَأْتِنَا بِهِ مِنْ آَيَةٍ لِتَسْحَرَنَا بِهَا فَمَا نَحْنُ لَكَ بِمُؤْمِنِينَ (الأعراف: ١٣٢) "And they said [unto Moses:] 'Whatever sign thou mayest produce before us in order to cast a spell upon us thereby, we shall not believe thee!'" (Q. 7:132). [470]
Ibn Qutaybah states the view of al-Khalīl and Sībawayh on the particle mahmā as follows: According to al-Khalīl, the origin of mahmā is mā added with an ineffectual mā (اُدْخِلَتْ مَعَهَا لَغْواً); the alif of the first mā is replaced with h, so that مَامَا becomes مَهْمَـا . He asserts that this ineffectual mā can also be added to matá, such as the expression مَتَى تَأْتِيْنِيْ آتِكَ can also be rendered مَتَى مَا تَأْتِيْنِيْ آتِكَ; it can also be added to ayy, such as أَيًًًّا مَا تَدْعُوا فَلَهُ الْأَسْمَاءُ الْحُسْنَى (الإسراء: ١١٠) "... by whichever name you invoke Him, [He is always the One] His are the most beautiful names..." (Q. 17:110), meaning as أَيًًًّا تَدْعُوا ("unto whichever ye cry"). Sībawayh asserts that it is possible that mahmā was originally mah with an additional mā; it is the same as mā added to idh.[471]
11. مَا (what) and مَنْ (who)
In this section Ibn Qutaybah examines mā and its meanings, including man. He does not treat man independently. He states that originally mā and man have the same meaning, then man was used for human beings, and mā for others. He cites three examples of the meanings of mā as follows:
a. مَنْ (who, whom) as in وَمَا خَلَقَ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى (الليل: ٣) "And Him Who hath created male and female." (Q. 92:3, Pickthall). This is the opinion of Abū ‘Ubaydah.[472]
b. الَّذِيْ (who, which), as in the above verse.[473] This interpretation of mā with al-ladhī in the above verse is from al-H.asan and al-Kalbī.[474] This interpretation is advocated by Abu ‘Amr ibn al-‘Alā’ who contends that the people of Makkah, when they heard thunder, used to say to it سُبْحَانَ مَا سَبَّحْتَ لَهُ meaning سُبْحَانَ الَّذِيْ سَبَّحْتَ لَهُ "Glorified be Whom you have glorified"). [475]
c. مَا turns its succeeding verb into mas.dar; it is what modern grammarians call mā mas.darīyah. This is the view of al-Farrā’, who interprets the above verse as وَخَلََْقُهُ الذَّكَرَ وَالْأُنْثَى "And His creation of male and female."[476]
The meanings of mā were extensively discussed by grammarians in the past. Ibn al-Anbārī, for example, mentioned three meanings: (1) al-ladhī, such as the expression عَبْدُ اللهِ قََامَ meaning عَبْدُ اللهِ الَّذِيْ قََامَ ("‘Abd Allāh who stood up"); (2) lam (not), such asعَبْدُ اللهِ مَا قََامَ meaning عَبْدُ اللهِ لَمْ يَقُمْ ("‘Abd Allāh did not stand up"); and (3) mazīdah (additional), such as إِنََّّ اللَّهَ لَا يَسْتَحْيِي أَنْ يَضْرِبَ مَثَلًا مَا بَعُوضَةً فَمَا فَوْقَهَا (البقرة : ٢٦) (Q. 2:26) in which mā is additional.[477] Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī mentioned six and seven meanings respectively, whereas Ibn Fāris and al-Suyūt.ī both mentioned eight meanings. [478]
Despite the discrepancy which occasionally occurred in the interpretation of the particle mā in the verses of the Qur’ān, these various interpretations are generally reconciliable, and even complement each other. For example, in the verse قُتِلَ الْإِنْسَانُ مَا أَكْفَرَه (عبس : ١٧) (Q. 80:17), according to Tiflīsī's interpretation, mā means "what"[479] (أََيُّ شَيْء) ; this is the interpretation which is adopted by A.Y. Ali when he translates the above verse as follows: "Woe to man! What hath made him reject God?" [480] On the other hand, al-Zamakhsharī and al-Suyūt.ī asserts that mā in this verse indicates wonder; [481] this is the interpretation followed by M.M. Pickthall when he translates the verse as follows: "Man is (self-) destroyed: how ungrateful!" [482] Both interpretations are mentioned by al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarsī.[483] The third interpretation is that of Ibn al-Jawzī who maintains that mā indicates wonder in the interrogative form [484] بِمَعْنَى التَّعَجُّبُ عَلىَ لَفْظِ) (اْلإسْتِفْهَام, namely, in modern terminology, a rhetorical question (إسْتِفْهَامٌ إنْكَارِيّ).
12. كَادَ (almost, nearly, to be near to, to be on the point of)
The term kāda, like karaba and awshaka, belongs to the category of verbs called by the grammarians af‘āl al-muqārabah, namely, verbs which indicate being on the verge of doing something. [485] According to Ibn Qutaybah, the term kāda means "to be on the point of (doing something) but did not do it" (هَمَّ وَلَمْ يَفْعَلْ) . It is not followed by an; therefore, it is not right to say كَادَ أَنْ يَفْعَلَ, but rather كَادَ يَفْعَل , as in فَذَبَحُوهَا وَمَا كَادُوا يَفْعَلُونَ (البقرة: ٧١) ".... So they sacrificed her [namely, the cow], though almost they did not." (Q. 2:71, Pickthall).[486] However, kāda followed by an occurs in poetry,[487] as in the following poem of Ru’bah: قَدْ كَادَ مِنْ طُوْلِ البِلاَ أَنْ يَمْحَصَا "It had nearly come to nought from length of wear." (Lane's translation)[488]
Another view is that kāda indicates the occurrence of something كَادَ) (بِمَعْنَى فَعَلَ, such as the following poem of Dhū al-Rummah:
وَ لَوْ أَنَّ لُقْمَانَ اْلحَكِيْمَ تَعَرَّضَتْ * لِعَيْنَيْهِ مَيٌّ سَافِرًا كَادَ يَبْرَقُ
“And if Luqman the sage happened to take a glance
at Mayy unveiled, he would be surprised.”
Here kāda yabraqu ("he would be on the point of being surprised") means labariqa ("he would be surprised).[489]
According to this view the term kāda here is, as stated by al-Murtad.á, additional and has no function, and therefore is not translated. Similarly, the verse لَمْ يَكَدْ يَرَاهَا (النور : ٤٠) (Q. 24:40) means لَمْ يَرَهَا ("he does not see it"). The term yakad here is not only additional, but is also said to function as emphasis. However, another view says that yakad in the above verse is not additional. [490]
Al-Suyūt.ī gives us more details on kāda. He asserts that the term indicates that something nearly happened. If it is followed by a negation, then it negates that it nearly happened. On the other hand, the affirmation of itindicates the affirmation that it had nearly happened.[491]
Al-Suyūt.ī notes that it is commonly said that kāda with negation indicates the occurrence of the action, whereas kāda with affirmation indicates the negation of such an occurrence. For example, مَا كَادَ يَفْعَلُ (he almost did not do) means فَعَلَ (he did), as in Q. 2:71 mentioned above. This is also Ibn Fāris's view.[492] The expression كَادَ زَيْدٌ يَفْعَلُ (Zayd almost did) means لَمْ يَفْعَلْ (he did not do), as in وَإِنْ كَادُوا لَيَفْتِنُونَكَ (الإسراء: ٧٣) "And they almost beguile thee (Muhammad)..." (Q. 17:73).[493]
Al-Suyūt.ī rejects the view that the present tense of kāda with negation indicates that the action does occur, as in لَمْ يَكَدْ يَرَاهَا (النور : ٤٠) "... he cannot nearly see it" (Q. 24:40, Rodwell),[494] since he does not see anything. He contends that instead of "he almost does not see it" the meaning of the verse is "he does not almost see it (or, he is not near to seeing it)", namely, the negation of almost (or the nearness to) seeing it, let alone seeing it. [495] The same with Q. 2:71 above where the people of Moses slaughtered the cow; before that, they had not almost done it, namely, they had been far from slaughtering it. [496]
Al-Suyūt.ī also states that kāda sometimes means arāda (to want), as in أَكَادُ أُخْفِيهَا (طه : ١٥) "... I want to keep it hidden..." (Q. 20:15). This view is also mentioned by al-Murtad.á and Ibn al-Anbārī.[497] On the other hand, arāda sometimes means kāda, as in جِدَارًا يُرِيدُ أَنْ يَنْقَضََّ (الكهف : ٧٧) “... a wall upon the point of falling into ruin..." (Q. 18:77). [498]
13. بَلْ (nay, rather; even; but; however, yet)
Bal is a particle of digression and emendation; it denotes digression from that which precedes. Ibn Qutaybah mentions two ways of using bal, as follow:
a. to correct a wrong statement, such as رَأَيْتُ زَيْدًا بَلْ عَمْرًا "I saw Zayd, nay, rather ‘Amr."
b. to shift from one object of discourse to another, as in ص وَالْقُرْآَنِ ذِي الذِّكْرِ. بَلِ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا فِي عِزَّةٍ وَشِقَاقٍ (ص: ١-٢ ) "Sād. Consider this Qur’ān, endowed with all that one ought to remember! But nay - they who are bent on denying the truth are lost in [false] pride, and [hence] deeply in the wrong." (Q. 38:1-2, Asad).[499] According to al-Tha‘ālibī the meaning of bal in the above verse is inna ("verily").[500]
14. هَلْ (an interrogative particle introducing direct and indirect questions)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions the function and meanings of hal, as follows:
a. It is used to ask questions, [501] as in قُلْ هَلْ مِنْ شُرَكَائِكُمْ مَنْ يَبْدَأُ الْخَلْقَ ثُمَّ يُعِيدُهُ (يونس: ٣٤) "Say: 'Can any of those beings to whom you ascribe a share in God's divinity create [life] in the first instance, and then bring it forth anew?'" (Q. 10:34, Asad). [502] Ibn Qutaybah states that there is تَقْرِيْر (affirmation) and تَوْبِيْخ (reproach) in this verse. The taqrīr is the affirmation that none of the partners ascribed to Allah by infidels can produce creation and reproduce it, except Allah Himself. The tawbīkh is reproaching the infidels for believing and ascribing partners to Allah.
b. قَــدْ (already) in some Qur’ānic verses, according to the Qur’ānic commentators, such as Abū ‘Ubaydah, al-Kisā’ī, Sībawayh, al-Farrā’, al-Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī and al-Zarkashī, as in هَلْ أَتَى عَلَى الْإِنْسَانِ حِينٌ مِنَ الدَّهْرِ لَمْ يَكُنْ شَيْئًا مَذْكُورًا (الدهر: ١) “There has already been an immensely long span of time when man was not yet a thing to be thought of." (Q. 76:1).[503]
c. مَـا (not), according to the linguists, as in هَلْ يَنْظُرُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ تَأْتِيَهُمُ الْمَلَائِكَةُ (الأنعام: ١٥٨) “Wait they [namely, they did not wait], indeed for nothing [namely, anything] less than the angels should come to them..." (Q. 6:158).[504]
Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention four meanings of hal, whereas Ibn al-Jawzī mentions seven meanings as above. The rest are as follows:
a. أَلاَ (an expression indicating a polite offer, such as, "shall I...?", "would you like ...", etc), [505] as in هَلْ أَدُلُّكُمْ عَلَى تِجَارَةٍ (الصف: ١٠) “Shall I point out to you a bargain...” (Q. 61:10, Asad).[506]
b. أَلَيْسَ (negative question, such as "is it not", etc), as in هَلْ فِي ذَلِكَ قَسَمٌ لِذِي حِجْر (الفجر: ٥) "Is not in all of this, to anyone endowed with reason, a solemn affirmation [of the existence and oneness of Allah]?." (Q. 89:5).
c. اْلأَمْر (command), as in قَالَ هَلْ أَنْتُمْ مُطَّلِعُونَ (الصافات: ٥٤) "[And] He adds: 'Would you like to look [and see him]?'" (Q. 37:54, Asad), meaning "look [at him]!"
d. السُّؤَال (request), as in يَوْمَ نَقُولُ لِجَهَنَّمَ هَلِ امْتَلَأْتِ وَتَقُولُ هَلْ مِنْ مَزِيدٍ (ق: ٣٠) "On the day when We will ask Hell: 'Art thou filled?' - and it will answer: '[Give me] more'" (Q. 50:30). [507]
15. لَوْلاَ and لََوْمَا (if only, were it not that, were it not for; why not, why was there not)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of law lā as follows:
a. هَـلاَّ (why not). It is a word indicating incitement to do, or reproof for not doing something, if it is not followed by a main clause (jawāb), as in the Arabic expression لَوْ فَعَلْتُُ كَذَا (If only I did such-and-such), and in the Qur’ānic verse فَلَوْلَا إِذْ جَاءَهُمْ بَأْسُنَا تَضَرَّعُوا (الأنعام: ٤٣) "If only, when Our disaster came on them, they had been humble!" (Q. 6:43, Pickthall). [508] Similarly, law mā sometimes also means hallā, as in لوما تأتينا بالملائكةلَوْ مَا تَأْتِينَا بِالْمَلَائِكَةِ (الحجر: ٧) "Why dost thou not bring before us angels ..." (Q. 15:7, Asad), meaning "If only you would bring angels before us..." [509]
b. لَوْلاَ (if not, were it not that), indicating something has not taken place due to the occurrence of something else, if law lā is followed by a main clause, as in فَلَوْلَا أَنَّهُ كَانَ مِنَ الْمُسَبِّحِينَ. لَلَبِثَ فِي بَطْنِهِ إِلَى يَوْمِ يُبْعَثُونَ (الصافا ت: ١٤٣-١٤٤) "And had he not been of those who glorify (Allah), he would have indeed remained in its belly till the Day all shall be raised from the dead." (Q. 37:143-1444).[510]
c. لَـْم (not), according to some commentators, as in فَلَوْلَا كَانَتْ قَرْيَةٌ آَمَنَتْ فَنَفَعَهَا إِيمَانُهَا إِلَّا قَوْمَ يُونُسَ (يونس: ٩٨ ) "For, there has never yet been any community that has ever believed and profited by its belief except the people of Jonah" (Q. 10:98). [511]
16. لَمَّـا (not, not yet; when, as; since, whereas)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions three meanings of lammā as follows:
a. لَـْم (not, not yet), as in بَلْ لَمَّا يَذُوقُوا عَذَابِ (ص: ٨ ) “... Nay, they have not yet tasted the suffering which I do impose!" (Q. 38:8, Asad).[512]
b. إلَّا (but, except), as in وَإِنْ كُلُّ ذَلِكَ لَمَّا مَتَاعُ الْحَيَاةِ الدُّنْيَا (الزخرف: ٣٥) ".... Yet, all this would have been nothing but a [brief] enjoyment of life in this world..." (Q. 43:35, Asad). [513]
c. لَمَّـا (when, at the time when, at the time of) if it is followed by a main clause, as in لَمَّا جَاءَ أَمْرُ رَبِّكَ (هود: ١٠١) “.... And when thy Sustainer's judgment came to pass, ..." (Q. 11:101, Asad). [514]
17. أَوْ (or)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions four meanings of aw as follows:
a. لِلشَّكّ (to indicate doubt), such as the expression رَأَيْتُ عَبْدَ اللهِ أَوْمُحَمَّدًا ("I saw ‘Abd Allah or Muh.ammad").[515]
b. لِلتَّخْيِيْرِ بَيْنَ الشَّيْئَيْن (to choose between two things), namely, or, as in فَفِدْيَةٌ مِنْ صِيَامٍ أَوْ صَدَقَةٍ أَوْ نُسُكٍ (البقرة: ١٩٦) "...[he] shall redeem himself by fasting, or alms, or [any other] act of worship...." (Q. 2:196, Asad). [516]
c. وَاوُالنَّسَق (the conjunction "and"), as in فَالْمُلْقِيَاتِ ذِكْرًا.عُذْرًا أَوْ نُذْرًا (المرسلات: ٥-٦) "and then giving forth a reminder, [promising] freedom from blame or [offering] a warning!" (Q. 77:5-6, Asad).[517] Al-Farrā’ rejects the occurrence of aw meaning wa in Arabic language other than in the Qur’ān as in the above example. Giving the example of the verse وَإِنَّا أَوْ إِيَّاكُمْ لَعَلَى هُدًى أَوْ فِي ضَلَالٍ مُبِينٍ (سبأ: ٢٤) “... And behold, either we [who believe in Him] or you [who deny His oneness] are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray!" (Q. 34:24, Asad), al-Farrā’ says that the commentators' interpretation of this verse is "we are on the right path, and you have clearly gone astray". In the expression إِنْ شِئْتَ فَخُذْ دِرْهَمًا أَوْ دِرْهَمَيْن ("if you like take one or two dirhams"), it never means "take one and two", namely, three. Therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "we are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray, and you, too, are on the right path, or have clearly gone astray", whereas Allah knows that His messenger is on the right path, and the others have clearly gone astray. It is the same as saying "one of us is a liar" when we accuse somebody of lying, but not openly.[518]
d. بَلْ ("nay, rather", "nay, but"), as in وَأَرْسَلْنَاهُ إِلَى مِئَةِ أَلْفٍ أَوْ يَزِيدُونَ (الصاّفّات: ١٤٧) "And [then] We sent him [once again] a hundred thousand [souls], nay, rather more." (Q. 37:147). [519] This interpretation, however, is rejected by Ibn Qutaybah who claims that bal is used to correct a wrong statement. He maintains that instead of bal, the particle aw in the above verse means wa. As evidence, he quotes Jarir's poem as follows:
أَ ثَعْلَبَةَ اْلفَوَارِسَ أَوْ رِيَاحَا * عَدَلْتَ بِهِمْ طُهَيَّةَ وَاْلخِشَابَا
“How did you make the [two] tribes Tha‘labah the knights
and Riyah. equal to T.uhayyah and Khishāb tribes?” [520]
This is a clear evidence for those who claim that Ibn Qutaybah does not belong to either the grammarian school of Bas.rah or Kūfah, but of Baghdād, the mixture of the two schools. The former school says that aw cannot be interpreted as wa or bal, but the latter allows it, whereas Ibn Qutaybah says that it can be interpreted as wa, but not as bal. [521] The argument of the grammarians of Bas.rah is as follows: (1) If aw can be interpreted as bal in this poem, then this can also be applied to other poems or expressions. For example, the expression ضَرَبْتُ زَيْدًا أَوْ عَمْرًا ("I beat Zayd or ‘Amr") can never mean ضَرَبْتُ زَيْدًا بَلْ عَمْرًا ("I beat Zayd, nay, rather ‘Amr"); (2) Bal is used to correct a mistake or a forgotten thing. Allah never forgets or makes mistakes. When He uses it, it means to correct the previous statement which is not His, as in وَقَالُوا اتَّخَذَ الرَّحْمَنُ وَلَدًا سُبْحَانَهُ بَلْ عِبَادٌ مُكْرَمُونَ (الأنبياء: ٢٦) “And [yet] some say: 'The Most Gracious has taken unto Himself a son!' Limitless is He in His glory! Nay, [those whom they regard as God's 'offspring' are but His] honoured servants." (Q. 21:26, Asad). [522]
Defending the school of Kūfah in general and al-Farrā’ in particular who holds this view, Ibn Fāris asserts that this view had been adopted by people before al-Farrā’. Moreover, it is wrong to assume that bal can only be used after a mistake or forgetting, as the Arabs cite the following poem of al-‘Ajjāj: بَلْ ما هاجَ أحْزاناً وشَجْواً قَدْ شَجَا ("Nay, but he did not agitate sorrows and distress which has appeared"). Here, bal neither corrects a mistake nor has the sense of aw. With regard to the verse ثُمَّ قَسَتْ قُلُوبُكُمْ مِنْ بَعْدِ ذَلِكَ فَهِيَ كَالْحِجَارَةِ أَوْ أَشَدُّ قَسْوَةً (البقرة: ٧٤) "And yet, after all this, your hearts hardened and became like rocks, or even harder,..." (Q. 2:74, Asad), or وَمَا أَمْرُ السَّاعَةِ إِلَّا كَلَمْحِ الْبَصَرِ أَوْ هُوَ أَقْرَبُ (النحل: ٧٧) “.... And so, the advent of the Last Hour will but manifest itself [in a single moment,] like the twinkling of an eye, or closer still..." (Q. 16:77, Asad), Ibn Fāris gives his commentary as follows: In these verses the Speaker, namely, Allah, knows whether their hearts were hardened like rocks or harder, or whether the advent of the Last Hour will manifest itself in a twinkling of an eye or closer, but He wants to keep them secret, and therefore puts aw. Another interpretation, however, is that in Q. 2:74 some of their hearts are as hard as rocks, and others are harder than rocks. [523]
There are other meanings of أو which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah. For example,إلاَّ (unless) mentioned by Ibn Fāris, as in the expression لَأَلْزَمَنَّكَ أَوْ تُعْطِيَنِي حَقِّي ("I will surely force you, or [namely, unless] you give me my right"). [524] Al-Tha‘ālibī mentions two other meanings, namely,إِلىَ (till, up to), and حَتـَّى (until). The example of the former is in Imru’ al-Qays's following poem which he cited while he was coming to the Caesar for help against the Banī Asad tribe that had killed his father:
فَقُلْتُ لَهُ : لاَ تَبْكِ عَيْنَكَ إنَّمَا * نُحَاوِلُ مِلْكًا أَوْ نَمُوْتُ فَنُعْذَرَا
“So, I said to him: 'Do not let your eyes weep;
verily, we are trying (to get our) right or [namely, until]
we die; in that case, we shall be excused.'” [525]
The example of the latter is the following poem: ضَرْبًا وَ طَعْنًا أَوْ يَمُوْتُ اْلأَعْجَل “with beating and stabbing or [namely, until] he dies the quickest (death)". [526] This poem was probably a description of a fight where a person kept attacking his enemy fiercely and did not stop fighting until he was killed.
18. أَمْ ("or", introducing the second member of an alternative question)
Two meanings of am are mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, as follows:
a. أَوْ (or), as in أَأَمِنْتُمْ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاءِ أَنْ يَخْسِفَ بِكُمُ الْأَرْضَ فَإِذَا هِيَ تَمُورُ. أَمْ أَمِنْتُمْ مَنْ فِي السَّمَاءِ أَنْ يُرْسِلَ عَلَيْكُمْ حَاصِبًا (الملك: ١٦-١٧) "Can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not cause the earth to swallow you up when, lo and behold, it begins to quake? Or can you ever feel secure that He Who is in heaven will not let loose against you a deadly stormwind, ...?" (Q. 67:16-17, Asad).[527]
b. أَلِفُ اْلإسْتِفْهَام (alif as an interrogative particle), as in أَمْ يَحْسُدُونَ النَّاسَ عَلَى مَا آَتَاهُمُ اللَّهُ مِنْ فَضْلِهِ (النساء: ٥٤) "Do they, perchance, envy other people for what Allah has granted them out of his bounty?..." (Q. 4:54, Asad). This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah. [528] Ibn Qutaybah maintains that there are many verses in the Qur’ān where the particle am serves as alif istifhām, especially when the am does not constitute an alternative question, as in الم. تَنْزِيلُ الْكِتَابِ لَا رَيْبَ فِيهِ مِنْ رَبِّ الْعَالَمِينَ. أَمْ يَقُولُونَ افْتَرَاهُ (السجدة : ١-٣) "Alif Lam Mim. (This is) the revelation of the Book in which there is no doubt, - from the Lord of the worlds. Or do they say, 'He has forged it'?" (Q. 32:1-3, Ali). Ibn Qutaybah asserts that since the particle am here is not preceded by another question, then it serves as alif istifhām. Otherwise, it means aw. [529] Ali translates am as an interrogative particle aw above.
There are other meanings of am which are not mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, among which are as follows:
a. بَلْ , as in أَمْ يَقُولُونَ شَاعِرٌ (الطور: ٣٠) "Nay, rather they say: '(he is), a poet' ..." (Q. 52:30). [530]
b. وَ , as in أَمْ يَقُولُونَ افْتَرَاهُ "And they assert, '[Muh.ammad] has invented it." (Q. 10:38). [531]
c. additional اَمْ , as in أَمْ أَنَا خَيْرٌ مِنْ هَذَا الَّذِي هُوَ مَهِينٌ وَلَا يَكَادُ يُبِينُ (الزخرف : ٥٢) I am surely better than this contemptible man who can hardly make his meaning clear." (Q. 43:52).[532]
19. لَا (not)
Ibn Qutaybah mentions one meaning only of lā, namely lam, with one example from the Qur’ān, and two from poetry. The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فَلَا صَدَّقَ وَلَا صَلَّى (القيامة: ٣١) "… for [as long as he was alive] he did not accept the truth, nor did he pray [for enlightenment]." (Q. 75:31, Asad). One example from poetry is the poem of Abū Khirāsh al-Hudhalī as follows:
إن تَغْفِرِ اللَّهُمَّ تغفِرْ جَمّا * وأيُّ عبدٍ لَكَ لا أَلَمّا
“ If you forgive, Oh God, forgive generously; (for) is there
any servant of Yours who does not commit sin?” [533]
Ibn al-Jawzī mentions three meanings of lā, one of which is lam as mentioned above. The other two are lā indicating negation (لَا النَّافِيَة in modern terminology), and lā indicating prohibition (لَا النَّاهِيَة in modern terminology). Their respective examples are as follows: وَلَا يُكَلِّمُهُمُ اللَّهُ يَوْمَ الْقِيَامَةِ وَلَا يُزَكِّيهِمْ (البقرة: ١٧٤) “And God will not speak to them on the Day of Resurrection, nor will He cleanse them [of their sins]; ..." (Q. 2:174, Asad), and وَلَا تَنْسَ نَصِيبَكَ مِنَ الدُّنْيَا (القصص: ٧٧) "... and do not forget thine own [rightful] share in this world, ..." (Q. 28:77). [534]
Ibn al-Anbārī includes the term lā among the ad.dād (words which have opposite meanings). Beside negation, lā could also mean affirmation, if the sentence is affirmative, and lā in it is additional, such as in the verse: قَالَ مَا مَنَعَكَ أَلَّا تَسْجُدَ إِذْ أَمَرْتُكَ (الأعراف: ١٢ ) "Allah said: 'What has kept thee from prostrating [lit., 'from not prostrating'] thyself when I commanded thee?' ..."(Q. 7:12), meaning ما مَنَعَكَ أَنْ تَسْجُدَ “What prevented you from prostrating." In this case, lā is s.ilah according to al-Farrā’ and al-Zamakhsharī, [535] whereas according to Abū ‘Ubaydah, Ibn al-Anbārī, Ibn Kathīr and al-Qayrawānī it is additional (zā’idah).[536] This is also the view of Qut.rub who says that like mā, lā occurs additionally in the Qur’ān.[537]
There are also different views on the position of lā in the beginning of many verses of the Qur’ān, such as لَا أُقْسِمُ بِيَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (القيامة: ١) "Nay, I swear by the Day of Resurrection" (Q. 75:1, Pickthall). Al-Kisā’ī, for example, says that lā in this case is additional. This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah. On the other hand, according to al-Farrā’, it is not additional, but a negation of the infidels' allegation that Allah has a son, a companion and a spouse. [538] Many Qur’ānic verses refer to the unbelievers' allegation that Allah has a son (Q. 2:116, 10:68, 18:4, 19:36, 19:91 and 21:26). Two verses deny the allegation that Allah has a son and a consort (Q. 6:101 and 72:3).
20. أَوْلىَ (nearer)
Ibn Qutaybah gives us one meaning of awlá, namely, intimidation and threats (تَهْدِيْدٌ وَوَعِيْد), as in أَوْلَى لَكَ فَأَوْلَى. ثُمَّ أَوْلَى لَكَ فَأَوْلَى (القيامة: ٣٤-٣٥) “[And yet, O man, thine end comes hourly] nearer unto thee and nearer - and ever nearer unto thee and nearer." (Q. 75:34-5, Asad), meaning, "Threat be upon you again and again with your end."[539]
The term awlá in the expression awlá lahu means, according to al-Asma‘ī, "his ruin is approaching"قَارَبَهُ مَا يُهْلِكُه)ُ . This is also the view of Tha‘lab and al-Nah.h.ās. Tha‘lab says that the Arabic expression awlá laka means that the ruin is near as if it is said to him قََدْ وَلِيْتَ اْلهَلاك ("You are approaching the ruin), as the origin of awlá is al-walyu, meaning "nearness". Al-Nah.h.ās says that awlá laka means كِدْتَ تَهْلِكُ ("you almost became ruined"), as if it is said, "the ruin is near to you". [540]
21. لاَ جَـرَمَ (surely, certainly, definitely, of course)
According to al-Farrā’ lā jarama meant the same as lā budda (definitely, inevitably) and lā mah.ālah (positively, absolutely, by all means); then, through its frequent expression, it meant an oath, and eventually it also meant h.aqqan (truly, certainly). The expression لاَ جَرَمَ لَآتِيَنَّكَ means "truly, I shall certainly come to you". The basic meaning of jarama, according to al-Farrā’, is kasaba (to earn, obtain, acquire, gain), as in the following poem of Abū Asmā’ ibn al-D.arībah or ‘Atīyah ibn ‘Afīf:
وَلَقَدْ طَعَنْتَ أَبَا عُيَيْنَةَ طَعْنَةً * جَرَمَتْ فَزَارَةَ بَعْدَهَا أَنْ يَغْضَبُوْا
“And verily thou [Karz al-‘Uqaylī] didst thrust Abū ‘Uyaynah
[of the Fazārah tribe] with a thrust [of thy spear] that caused
Fazārah [tribe] after it, to be angry [against thee].”
(Lane's translation).[541]
The expression فُلَانٌ جَارِمُ أَهْلِهِ means كَاسِبُهُمْ ("their provider"). Sin, Ibn Qutaybah contends, is called jurm, because it is acquisition and perpetration.[542]
There are five Qur’ānic verses with the expression lā jarama, but Ibn Qutaybah does not cite any of them. They are Q. 11:22, 16:23, 62 and 109, and 40:43. Al-Suyūt.ī gives four interpretations of the meaning of lā jarama as follows: (1) Lā is the negation of what is mentioned before, jarama means "true", so that the expression لاَ جَرَمَ أَنَّ means "nay, it is true that..." (2) Lā is additional, jarama means kasaba, so that the expression mentioned above means كَسَبَ لَهُمْ عَمَلَهُمُ النَّدَامَة “may their deed provide for them remorse" (3) Lā and jarama are two words combined to mean "truly"; and (4) Lā jarama means lā budda.[543]
22. إنَّ اْلخَفِيْفَةَ (light "in")
Ibn Qutaybah cites three meanings of the light in, as follows:
a. مَا (not), as in إِنْ كَانَتْ إِلَّا صَيْحَةً وَاحِدَةً فَإِذَا هُمْ خَامِدُونَ (يس: ٢٩) "Nothing was [needed] but one single blast [of Our punishment] - and lo! they became as still and silent as ashes." (Q. 36:29, Asad).[544]
b. لَقَدْ (verily), as in إِنْ كَانَ وَعْدُ رَبِّنَا لَمَفْعُولًا (الإسراء: ١٠٨)".... Verily, our Sustainer's promise has been fulfilled." (Q.17:108, Asad).[545]
c. إذْ (since, as, because), as in وَذَرُوا مَا بَقِيَ مِنَ الرِّبَا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُؤْمِنِينَ (البقرة: ٢٧٨ ) "..., and give up all outstanding gains from usury, since ye are truly believers." (Q. 2:278).[546] This meaning is based on the views of unspecified Qur’ānic commentators by Ibn Qutaybah. He asserts that philologists do not put idh as the meaning of in in the above or similar verses; therefore, the meaning of the above verse is "whoever becomes a true believer will stop practising usury." [547]
There are three other meanings of in which are not treated by Ibn Qutaybah in this section, as follows:
a. إنْ (the conditional "if"), as in إِنْ أَحْسَنْتُمْ أَحْسَنْتُمْ لِأَنْفُسِكُمْ وَإِنْ أَسَأْتُمْ فَلَهَا (الإسراء: ٧) "[And We said:] 'If you persevere in doing good, you will but be doing good to yourselves; and if you do evil, it will be [done] to yourselves....'" (Q. 17:7, Asad), and قُلْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تُحِبُّونَ اللَّهَ فَاتَّبِعُونِي (آل عمران: ٣١) “Say [O Muh.ammad, to mankind): 'If ye love Allah, follow me;...'" (Q. 3:31, Pickthall). [548]
b. إنْ زَائِدَة (in as additional), as in وَلَقَدْ مَكَّنَّاهُمْ فِيمَا إِنْ مَكَّنَّاكُمْ فِيهِ (الأحقاف: ٢٦) "And yet, We had established them securely in a manner in which We have never established you, [O people of later times;]..." (Q. 46:26, Asad). [549]
c. إنْ ("verily", "surely"), as in قَالُوا إِنْ هَذَانِ لَسَاحِرَانِ (طه: ٦٣) "... saying [to one another]: 'These two are surely sorcerers..." (Q. 20:63, Asad), based on the variant reading of H.afs. and Ibn Kathīr. [550]
23. هـا (ha! hey! look! there!)
According to Ibn Qutaybah the particle hā is synonymous with the imperative khudh ("take!") and tanāwal ("take!", "accept!"), such as in the imperative expression هَا يَا رَجُلُ "Take [it], man!"). The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: هَاؤُمُ اقْرَءُوا كِتَابِيَهْ (الحاقة: ١٩) "... Take, read my book!" (Q. 69:19, Pickthall). The origin of hā’um is hākum where the letter kāf is substituted with the letter hamzah.[551]
Another view, as stated by Ibn Manz.ūr, is that ha is h.arf tanbīh ("the letter of alertness"), namely, an interjection at the beginning of the sentence used to attract the listener's attention similar to the English "hey". For example, هَذَا أَخُوْكَ (lit., "Hey, this is your brother") and هَا إَنَّ ذَا أَخُوْكَ (lit., "Hey, indeed, this is your brother"). [552] According to Ibn Zayd and Ibn ‘At.īyah hā means ta‘āl ("come!"), while according to Muqātil it means halumma ("come on!").[553]
According to Ibn Qutaybah, the dual of hā’um is hā’umá. [554] This is also the view of Ibn al-Sikkīt and al-Kisā’ī who say that the Arabs say هَاءَ يَا رَجُلُ for the singular, هَاؤُمَا يَا رَجُلانِ for the dual, and هَاؤُمْ يَا رِجَالُ for the plural; for the feminine gender, they say هَاءِ يَا اْمْرَأَةُ, هَاؤُمَا يَا امْرَأَتَانِ, and [هَاؤُمْنَ يَا نِسْوَة. [551
24. هـَاتِ
According to Ibn Qutaybah, hāti is synonymous with the imperative "give me", as in قُلْ هَاتُوا بُرْهَانَكُمْ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ صَادِقِينَ (البقرة: ١١١) ".... Say: Give me your proof (of what you are claiming) if what you say is true!" (Q. 2:111). He quotes al-Farrā’ who said that he had never heard of هَاتِيَا , the dual number for هَاتِ, but the singular and plural only, namely, هَاتِ and هَاتِيْ (for singular feminine), and هَاتُوْا and هَاتِيْنَ (for plural feminine). Negation is expressed by مَا أُهَاتِيْكَ meaning مَا أُعَاطِيْكَ ("I shall not give you"), but the Arabs do not say it for the past tense, such as هَاتَيْتُ ("I have given"), nor in the negative imperative, such as لاَ تُهَاتِ ("do not give!").[556]
25. تَعَال (lit., "be elevated!", "come up!” " come!")
The original meaning of ta‘āl, according to al-Farrā’, as quoted by Ibn Qutaybah, is عَالِ إِلَيْنَا ("come up to us!"), but through popular usage the term became synonymous with هَلُـمَّ ("come!"), so much so that it can be said to a person on an elevated place تَعَـال ("come up!"), when we actually mean "come down!". It can be used for the singular feminine gender (تَعَالِى), for the dual (تَعَالَيَا), the plural masculine (تََعَالَوْا), and the plural feminine (تَعَالَيْنَ). Although it cannot be used for the negative imperative, it can be used in the past and the present tenses, such as تعاليتُ ("I came"), and إِلَى أَيِّ شَيْءٍ أَتَعَالىَ؟ ("To what thing shall I come?"). The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فَقُلْ تَعَالَوْا نَدْعُ أَبْنَاءَنَا وَأَبْنَاءَكُمْ (آل عمران: ٦١) "..., say: Come:! Let us summon our sons and your sons,..." (Q. 3:61, Asad).[557]
26. هَلُمَّ (come!, come on!, onward!, up!, get up!)
Halumma means تَعَـال (come!, come up!). The people of H.ijāz do not make it dual or plural, as it is invariably used for the singular, the dual, the plural, masculine and feminine. The Banū Tamīm people of Najd, however, make dual and plural of it, and say هَلُمِّي for singular feminine, هَلُمَّـا for dual, هَلُمُّـوا for plural masculine, and هَلُمْـنَ for plural feminine. هَلُمَّ can be followed by la, for example, هَلُمَّ لَكَ and [558] هَلُمَّ لَكُمْ.
There are two Qur’ānic verses mentioning this term, neither of which is given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example. They are قُلْ هَلُمَّ شُهَدَاءَكُمُ (الأنعام: ١٥٠) "Say: 'Bring forward your witnesses...'"(Q. 6:150, Asad) and وَالْقَائِلِينَ لِإِخْوَانِهِمْ هَلُمَّ إِلَيْنَا (الأحزاب: ١٨) "..., as well as those who say to their brethren, 'come hither to us...'"(Q. 33:18, Asad). It is used here invariably, namely, in the language of H.ijāz, although it indicates plural in both verses.
Philologists have different views about the origin of halumma. Al-Khalīl asserts that its origin is the combination of هَـا for calling attention (لِلتَّنْبِيْه), and لُـمَّ (imperative verb from لَمَّ meaning "to collect", "to settle"). The alif of هَا is dropped, and it becomes هَلُـمَّ. Al-Farrā’, on the other hand, asserts that it is the combination of the words hal and ’umma. It is like allāhumma which is originally from يَا اللهُ أُمَّنَا بِخَيْر ("O Allah, lead us well"). [559] Ibn Fāris states that, according to some philologists whom he does not identify, this term is originally from هَلْ أَؤمّ meaning "shall I lead (the way)?"; it was originally an expression given by a person who is going to bring the meal. This expression develops and later becomes an invitation to a meal. However, in Ibn Fāris's view, the term is ambiguous.[560]
27. كَـلَّا (not at all!, on the contrary!, by no means! certainly not!, never!, no!)
The term kallā indicates prevention (رَدْع) and rebuke [561] (زَجْر). Ibn Qutaybah cites six Qur’ānic verses as examples, two of which are as follows:
a. يَحْسَبُ أَنَّ مَالَهُ أَخْلَدَهُ. كَلَّا لَيُنْبَذَنَّ فِي الْحُطَمَةِ (الهمزة: ٣-٤) "thinking that his wealth will make him live for ever. Nay, but [in the life to come such as] he shall indeed be abandoned to crushing torment!" (Q. 104:3-4, Asad). Here, Ibn Qutaybah asserts, kallā means "his wealth will not make him live for ever". Therefore, it rejects the previous statement in the verse preceding it.
b. ثُمَّ إِنَّ عَلَيْنَا بَيَانَهُ (كَلَّا بَلْ تُحِبُّونَ الْعَاجِلَةَ (القيامة: ١٩-٢٠) "… and then, behold, it will be for Us to make its meaning clear. Nay, but [most of] you love this fleeting life." (Q. 75:19-20, Asad). Kallā here means "stop hurrying" [562]إِنْتَه)ِ (أَنْ تَعْجَلَ بِهِ. In other words, kallā in this verse reproves the earlier statement indicating that the Prophet moved his tongue in haste in repeating the revelation, namely, لَا تُحَرِّكْ بِهِ لِسَانَكَ لِتَعْجَلَ بِهِ (القيامة: ١٦) "Move not thy tongue in haste, [repeating the words of the revelation:]" (Q. 75:16, Asad).
Ibn al-Jawzī cites two meanings of kallā, as follows: (a) لا (not) which is found in fourteen verses of the Qur’ān, among which is Q. 104:4 mentioned above; (b) حَقًّّا (truly, verily) which is found in nineteen verses of the Qur’ān, among which is Q. 75:20 mentioned above. [563]
28.
رُوَيْدًا (slowly, gently, leisurely)
The term ruwaydan means مَهْـلاً (slowly, gently, leisurely). Ibn Qutaybah cites only one example from the Qur’ān, namely فَمَهِّلِ الْكَافِرِينَ أَمْهِلْهُمْ رُوَيْدًا (الطارق: ١٧) “Let, then, the deniers of the truth have their will: let them have their will (amhilhum) for a little while." (Q. 86:17, Asad). However, he says that here ruwaydan means qalīlan (for a little while). [564] If the term is not preceded by amhilhum in the above verse, then it means mahlan. It is always in the diminutive form (tas.ghīr), and in imperative mood, except in the following poem where it is neither in diminutive form nor in imperative mood: كَأَنَّهَا ثَمِلٌ يَمْشِيْ عَلىَ رُوْدِ "She is like a drunk walking slowly." [565]
29. أَلَا (a particle indicating alertness)
The term alā is used and added to the sentence to indicate alertness. The expression أَلاَ إِنَّ اْلقَوْمَ خَارِجُوْن means "Understand (ifham) that people are going out." The example in the Qur’ān is as follows: أَلَا يَوْمَ يَأْتِيهِمْ لَيْسَ مَصْرُوفًا عَنْهُمْ (هود: ٨) "Oh, verily, on the Day when it befalls them there will be nothing to avert it from them; ..." (Q. 11:8, Asad). [566]
Al-Suyūt.ī mentions three functions of alā, one of which is to alert the listener (لِلتَّنْبِيْه), as mentioned above. The other two are to incite (لِلتَّحْضِيْض), and to offer (لِلْعَرْض), as in the following respective examples: أَلَا تُقَاتِلُونَ قَوْمًا نَكَثُوا أَيْمَانَهُمْ (التوبة: ١٣) "Would you, perchance, fail to fight against people who have broken their solemn pledges, ..." (Q. 9:13, Asad), and أَلَا تُحِبُّونَ أَنْ يَغْفِرَ اللَّهُ لَكُمْ (النور: ٢٢) "... do you not desire that God should forgive you your sins,..?" (Q. 24:22, Asad).[567]
30. اْلوَيْـل (affliction, distress, woe)
Al-wayl, as stated by Ibn Qutaybah, is a word that combines all bad things (كَلِمَةٌ جَامِعَةٌ لِلشَّرِّ كُلِّه). He quotes al-As.ma‘ī's view who says that the term indicates taqbīh (the act of denouncing something as ugly or disgraceful), such as وَلَكُمُ الْوَيْلُ مِمَّا تَصِفُونَ (الأنبياء: ١٨) “.... But woe unto you for all your [attempts at] defining [God]." (Q. 21:18, Asad). The expression لَهُ اْلوَيْلُ وَاْلأَلِيْل means "woe and moaning to him". It is also used to express tah.assur (regret) and tafajju‘ (agony, affliction, grief), as in قَالُوا يَا وَيْلَنَا إِنَّا كُنَّا ظَالِمِينَ ( الأنبياء: ١٤) "And they could only cry: 'Oh, woe unto us! Verily, we were wrongdoers!'" (Q. 21:14, Asad). [568]
There are many different views about the meaning of wayl, among which are the following: al-Khalīl: the severity of evil (shiddat al-sharr); al-As.ma‘ī: agony (tafajju‘); Abū Zayd: disaster; Sībawayh: a person who is in disaster; Ibn ‘Arafah: sadness; this view is similar to that of al-Farrā’ who says that the origin of wayl is way, meaning sadness.[569]
31. لَعَمْرُكَ (by your life)
The expression la‘amruk (by your life) and la‘amr Allāh (by the everlasting existence of Allah, by the Eternal God) are oaths. [570] Ibn Qutaybah does not mention the only example from the Qur’ān which is as follows: لَعَمْرُكَ إِنَّهُمْ لَفِي سَكْرَتِهِمْ يَعْمَهُونَ (الحجر: ٧٢) "Verily, by thy life (O Prophet), in their wild intoxication, they wander in distraction, to and fro." (Q. 15:72, Ali). Ibn ‘Abbās was reported to have said that Allah never swears with the life of a person except with that of Prophet Muh.ammad. [571]
32. إِيْ (yes, yea)
According to Ibn Qutaybah iy means balá (yes, indeed, certainly, surely). It is used before an oath ,[572] as in (يونس: ٥٣) وَيَسْتَنْبِئُونَكَ أَحَقٌّ هُوَ قُلْ إِي وَرَبِّي إِنَّهُ لَحَقٌّ "And some people ask thee, 'Is all this true?' Say: 'Yea, by my Sustainer! It is most certainly true, ...'" (Q. 10:53, Asad).[573] Sometimes we hear people join إي with the وَاوُالْقَسَم that follows it and sayإيْوَ meaning "yes".[574]
33. لَدُنْ (on, at, upon, from)
Ladun means ‘inda (on, at, upon, from), as in قَدْ بَلَغْتَ مِنْ لَدُنِّي عُذْرًا (الكهف: ٧٦) "...[for by] now thou hast heard enough excuses from me." (Q. 18:76, Asad). The letter ن in لَدُنْ can be dropped, as in the following poem of Ghaylān ibn H.ārith al-Rub‘ī in describing the camel he was driving:
يَسْتَوْعِبُ البُوعَيْنِ مِْن جَريرِهِ * مِنْ لََدُ لَحْيَيْهِ إلى مُنْحُورِهِ
“It takes two elbows long upon its rope from its two jaws
to its upper chest [namely, it has a long neck].” [575]
Ibn Qutaybah also mentions ladá which is similar to ladun, meaning ‘inda, as in وَأَلْفَيَا سَيِّدَهَا لَدَى الْبَابِ (يوسف: ٢٥) "... - and [lo!] they met her lord at the door." (Q. 12:25, Asad). [576]
So far, we have seen how Ibn Qutaybah dealt with the thirty-three particles and uninflected verbs in his work Ta’wīl. Most of them were mentioned very briefly. For example, the term la‘amruk, was covered in less than two lines, iy in two, kayfa and ayyāna in four, awlá and alā in five, lā, al-wayl and hā in six lines. We have also seen that other scholars, such as Ibn al-Jawzī, Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Qurt.ubī and al-Suyūt.ī gave much more details regarding these terms than Ibn Qutaybah. However, despite his brevity, we note that some of his contributions highlight his deep understanding of this subject. Ibn al-Jawzī in his work Nuzhah, for example, mentions Ibn Qutaybah by name and quotes his interpretations of several terms and particles more than forty times.
D. The Substitution of Particles in
the Verses of the Qur’ān
According to Ibn Qutaybah there are particles in the verses of the Qur’ān that substitute each other. Besides Ta’wīl, this topic is also discussed by him in his work Adab al-Kātib, although in some cases he does not give examples from the Qur’ān in it. However, I shall also include in this study some examples which have not been quoted by him but have been quoted by other scholars.
These particles were not treated by later scholars as substituting or being in the sense of (synonymous with) each other, but as having many wujūh. These particles are: لِ , فِيْ , عَنْ , عَلِى , بِ , إِلىَ and مِنْ . They are dealt with as follows:
1. إِلىَ (to; toward; up to; as far as; till, until)
a. Ilá in the sense of ma‘a (with),[577] as in فَلَمَّا أَحَسَّ عِيسَى مِنْهُمُ الْكُفْرَ قَالَ مَنْ أَنْصَارِي إِلَى اللَّهِ (آل عمران: ٥٢) "And when Jesus became aware of their refusal to acknowledge the truth, he asked: 'Who will be my helpers in God's cause?'..." (Q. 3:52, Asad). The verse means, according to Ibn Qutaybah, "... who will be my helpers with Allah [578](مَعَ الله). The example from the Arabs' expression is the proverb الذَّوْدُ إِلَى الذَّوْدِ إِبِل which means "a small group of camels (from three to nine heads) with another small group makes a larger group of camels (ibil).[579]
b. Ilá in the sense of fī, as in the expression جَلَسْتُ إِلىَ اْلقَوْمِ meaning [580] جَلَسْتُ فِيْهِمْ. The example given by al-Suyūt.ī is the following verse: لَيَجْمَعَنَّكُمْ إِلَى يَوْمِ الْقِيَامَةِ (النساء: ٨٧) “.... [God] … will surely gather you all together on the Day of Resurrection..." (Q. 4:87, Asad). [581]
There are two more particles substituted by إِلىَ mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah in his work Adab al-Kātib but without any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a) Ilá in the sense of min, as in the following poem of Hanī‘ ibn Ah.mar al-Kinānī: يُسَقَّى فَلا يُرْوَى إليَّ ابْنُ أَحْمَرا “He was given drink, so there is no drink from me, Ibn Ah.mar." (b) Ilá in the semse of ‘inda, as in the expression هُوَ أَشْهى إِلَيَّ مِنْ كَذَا ("it is more delicious to me than such and such") in which ilayya ("to me") is in the sense of ‘indī ("for me").[582]
2. بِ (in, at, on; with; through, by means of)
a. Bi in the sense of ‘an, as in فَاسْأَلْ بِهِ خَبِيرًا (الفرقان: ٥٩)".... Ask, then, about Him, [the] One who is [truly] aware." (Q. 25:59, Asad). Here bihi is in the sense of ‘anhu. [583] The example from poetry is the following poem of ‘Alqamah ibn ‘Abadah:
فإِنْ تَسْأَلُونِي بالنِّسَاءِ فإِنَّني * بَصِيرٌ بأَدْواءِ النِّسَاءِ طَبيبُ
“And if ye ask me regarding [the diseases of] women,
verily, I ppossess knowledge of the diseases of
women, [I am] a physician.”
Here bi ’l-nisā’ is in the sense of ‘an al-nisā'.[584]
b. Bi in the sense of li (for), as in مَا خَلَقْنَاهُمَا إِلَّا بِالْحَقِّ (الدخان: ٣٩) “We created them not save with truth [namely, for the truth]." (Q. 44:39, Pickthall). [585]
The creation of the heavens and the earth bi’l-h.aqq (lit. "with truth") is mentioned in Q. 6:73, 14:19, 16:3, 29:44, 39:5, 45:22 and 64:3. In other verses it is stated that Allah did not create the heavens, the earth and all that is between them, namely, the entire universe, except bi’l-h.aqq (Q. 15:85, 30:8 and 46:3). On the other hand, Allah says that He has not created heaven and earth and all that is between them bāt.ilan (lit. "in vain") (Q. 38:27). Moreover, those who are endowed with insight and keep remembering Allah will say after reflecting the creation of the heavens and the earth: رَبَّنَا مَا خَلَقْتَ هَذَا بَاطِلًا (آل عمران: ١٩١)"Our Lord! Thou createdst not this in vain (bāt.ilan)." (Q. 3:191, Pickthall). Here the term bāt.ilan, meaning "without meaning and purpose" (as translated by Asad) is the opposite of bi’l-h.aqq, which means, "with a definite purpose and meaning". Bi’l-h.aqq also means lil-h.aqq, "for a definite purpose and meaning" if we assume that bi is in the sense of li in the above verses as stated by Ibn Qutaybah.
c. Bi in the sense of min, as in عَيْنًا يَشْرَبُ بِهَا عِبَادُ اللَّهِ (ا لدهر: ٦) “A fountain from which the servants of God shall drink." (Q. 76:6, Lane). According to Ibn Qutaybah, the expression yashrabu bihā in this verse is in the sense of yashrabu minhā. It is similar to the expression شَرِبْتَ بِمَاءِ كَذَا وَ كَذَا which means شَرِبْتُ مِنْ مَاءِ كَذَا وَ كَذَا ("I drank such and such water"). [586] From poetry he quotes the poem of Abū Dhu’ayb al-Hudhalī describing the clouds as follows:
شَرِبْنَ بِمَاءِ اْلبَحْرِ ثُمَّ تَرَفَّعَتْ * مَتَى لُجَجٍ خُضْرٍ لَهُنَّ نَئِيْجُ
“ They [namely, the clouds] drank from the water
of the sea, then rose up from the green depth of
the sea passing quickly and noisily.” [587]
d. Bi meaning fi, as in the following poem of al-A‘shá: مَا بُكَاءُ اْلكَبِيْرِ بِاْلأَطْلاَل meaning "what is (the benefit of) the old man's crying over the ruins" in which bi’l-at.lāl means fī ’l-at.lāl. [588] The examples given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī respectively are as follows: بِيَدِكَ الْخَيْرُ (آل عمران: ٢٦)".... In Thy hand is all good...." (Q. 3:26, Asad), and وَلَقَدْ نَصَرَكُمُ اللَّهُ بِبَدْرٍ (آل عمران: ١٢٣) "for indeed God did succour you at Badr,..." (Q. 3:123, Asad). [589]
e. Bi meaning ‘alá, as in the poem of ‘Amr ibn Qami’ah when he says بِوُدِّكَ مَا قَوْمِيْ ("On your affection to my people..."), in which bi means ‘alā, and mā is additional. [590] The examples from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī respectively are as follows: يَوْمَئِذٍ يَوَدُّ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا وَعَصَوُا الرَّسُولَ لَوْ تُسَوَّى بِهِمُ الْأَرْضُ (النساء: ٤٢) "On that day those who disbelieved and disobeyed the messenger will wish that the ground would become levelled on them" (Q. 4:42) and مَنْ إِنْ تَأْمَنْهُ بِقِنْطَارٍ (آل عمران: ٧٥) "... who, if thou trust him with a treasure,..." (Q. 3:75) in which biqint.ār means ‘alá qint.ār.[591]
f. Bi meaning min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the poem of Labīd when he said: غَلَبُ تُشَدُّ بِالذُّحُوْل "acts of conquering were scattering for the sake of blood revenge." [592] The examples from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī are respectively as follows: وَالَّذِينَ هُمْ بِهِ مُشْرِكُونَ (النحل: ١٠٠) "..., and those who, because of him (Satan) become polytheists." (Q. 16:100) in which bihi means min ajlihi; and فَكُلًّا أَخَذْنَا بِذَنْبِهِ (العنكبوت: ٤٠) “Each one of them We seized for his crime: ..." Q. 29:40, Ali), in which bidhanbihi means min ajli dhanbihi.[593]
3. عَلىَ (on, upon, at, by, in; to, toward, for)
a. ‘Alá in the sense of (meaning) min (from), as in الَّذِينَ إِذَا اكْتَالُوا عَلَى النَّاسِ يَسْتَوْفُونَ (المطففين: ٢) "Who, when they take by meas0ure from men, take fully" (Q. 83:2, Lane), in which ‘alá ’l-nās means min al-nās.[594] The example from poetry is the poem of S.akhr al-Ghayy, as follows:
مَتَى تُنْكِرُوْهَا تَعْرِفُوْهَا * عَلىَ أَقْطَارِهَا عَلَقٌ نَفِيْثُ
“[I am going to tell you about an essay (maqālah) you cannot deny], whenever you deny it you will know that blood will spill from its sides [namely, an essay that will kindle war and spill blood].” [595]
b. ‘Alá meaning ‘inda (at, near, by, with, on; upon), as in وَلَهُمْ عَلَيَّ ذَنْبٌ فَأَخَافُ أَنْ يَقْتُلُونِ (الشعراء: ١٤) “And (further), they have a charge of crime against me, so that I fear they may slay me." (Q. 26:14, Ali), in which ‘alayya dhanb means ‘indī dhanb.[596]
c. ‘Alá meaning fī, as in the expression كَانَ كَذَا عَلىَ عَهْدِ فُلان ("It was so in the time of So-and-so"), in which ‘alá ‘ahd means fī ‘ahd, and in وَاتَّبَعُوا مَا تَتْلُو الشَّيَاطِينُ عَلَى مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانَ (البقرة: ١٠٢) “And they followed what the devils related (or recited) in the time of (or during) the reigh of Solomon..." (Q. 2:102, Lane). Here ‘alá mulki means fī mulki. [597]
d. ‘Alá meaning bi, as in the expression إِرْكَبْ عَلىَ اسْمِ الله meaning إِرْكَبْ بِاسْمِ الله ("Mount thou in the name of God." Lane).[598] Al-Dāmaghānī cites the following verse as an example: وَعَلَى اللَّهِ فَتَوَكَّلُوا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُؤْمِنِينَ (المائدة: ٢٣) "....So put your trust (in Allah) if ye are indeed believers." (Q.5 :23, Pickthall), in which ‘alá Allāh means bi Allāh.[599]
e. ‘Alá meaning ma‘a, as in the poem of al-Shammākh as follows:
وَ بُرْدَانِ مِنْ خَالٍ وَ سَبْعُوْنِ دِرْهَمًا - عَلَى ذَاكَ مَقْرُوْظٌ مِنَ القِّدِّ مَاعِزُ
“And two special kinds of garments and seventy dirhams;
with that, a goat's skin thong tanned with pods of
acacia nilotica (a species of sant tree).” [600]
Al-Suyūt.ī cites the following example وَآَتَى الْمَالَ عَلَى حُبِّهِ (البقرة: ١٧٧) "...; and giveth his wealth, (accompanied) with his love, ..." (Q. 2:177), in which ‘alá h.ubbihi means ma‘a h.ubbihi as translated above. [601] Al-Qurt.ubī suggests two meanings for h.ubbihi in the above verse: "his love for his wealth", and "his love for the persons mentioned later: his kinsfolk, orphans, etc". [602] Pickthall and Ali, however, translate ‘alá h.ubbihi respectively as "for love of Him" and "out of love for Him", namely, Allah.[603]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions two more examples of substitutions of particles with ‘alá in his work Adab al-Kātib, without giving any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a). ‘Alā in the sense of ‘an, as in the expression رَضِيْتُ عَلَيْكَ meaning رَضِيْتُ عَنْكَ ("I have been pleased with you"), and رَمَيْتُ علىَ اْلقَوْس meaning رَمَيْتُ عَنِ اْلقَوْس “I shot [the arrow] from the bow"). [604] (b) ‘Alá in the sense of li, as in the poem of al-Rā‘ī (‘Ubayd ibn al-H.usayn al-Numayrī), رَعَتْهُ أَشْهُرًا وَخَلىَ عَلَيْهَا ("She took care of him for months and he devoted himself to her"), in which khalá ‘alayhā means khalá lahā.[605]
4. عَنْ (off, away, from; out of, about; for)
a. ‘An in the sense of bi (in, at, on, with), as in the expression رَمَيْتُ عَنِ اْلقَوْس meaning رَمَيْتُ بِاْلقَوْس ("I shot with the bow"),[606] and as in وَمَا يَنْطِقُ عَنِ الْهَوَى (النجم: ٣) “And neither does he speak out of his own desire.” (Q. 53:3, Asad).
b. ‘An in the sense of min, as in the expression أَخَذْتُ هَذَا عَنْكَ meaning أَخَذْتُ هَذَا مِنْكَ (“have taken this from you”), and in وَهُوَ الَّذِي يَقْبَلُ التَّوْبَةَ عَنْ عِبَادِهِ (الشورى: ٢٥) “And it is He who accepteth the repentance from His servants..." (Q. 42:25, Asad).[607]
c. ‘An in the sense of ‘alá, as in the following poem of Dhū al-Is.ba‘ al-‘Adwānī:
لَاهِ ابْنُ عَمِّكَ لَا أَفْضَلْتَ فَيْ حَسَبٍ * عَنِّي وَلَا أَنْتَ دَيَّاِنْي فَتَخْزُوْنِيْ
“To God be attributed the excellence of the son of thy paternal
uncle, thou hast not become possessed of superiority, on grounds
of pretension to respect (or honour), above me [عَنِّي ], nor art thou
my governor that thou shouldst rule me.”
(Lane's translation).[608]
The only example from the Qur’ān given by Ibn al-Jawzī and Al-Suyūt.ī is the following verse: وَمَنْ يَبْخَلْ فَإِنَّمَا يَبْخَلُ عَنْ نَفْسِهِ (محمد: ٣٨) ".... And yet, he who acts niggardly [in God's cause] is but niggardly towards his own self..." (Q. 47:38, Asad).[609] Here ‘an nafsih means ‘alá nafsih.
d. ‘An in the sense of ba‘da (after), as in the expression أَنَا فَاعِلٌ عَلىَ ذَلِكَ عَنْ قَلِيْل meaning أَنَا فَاعِلٌ عَلىَ ذَلِكَ بَعْدَ قَلِيْل ("I shall do that after a while"). [610] An example from the Qur’ān is given by al-Zarkashī and al-Suyūt.ī as follows: يُحَرِّفُونَ الْكَلِمَ عَنْ مَوَاضِعِهِ (المائدة: ١٣) “.... distorting the meaning of the [revealed] words after [knowing] their context..." (Q. 5:13). This interpretation is apparent if we compare it with another similar verse using min ba‘di mawād.i‘ihi instead of ‘an mawād.i‘ihi, namely, Q. 5:41. [611] Al-Qurt.ubī's commentary on this second verse is that the Jews distorted the meaning of the context of the Torah dealing with the stoning of the adulterer after the Prophet had explained to them what Allah meant by this penal law and after they had understood it. Through their interpretation they wanted to change the ruling of stoning for forty lashes. [612] Asad and Pickthall render the same translation of ‘an mawād.i‘ihi and min ba‘di mawād.i‘ihi in the above verses respectively as "out of their context" and "from their context". Ali translates the former as "from their (right) places" and the latter as "from their (right) time". [613]
Ibn Qutaybah mentions other substitutions of particles with ‘an, but without any example from the Qur’ān, as follows: (a) ‘an in the sense of min ajl (for the sake of, because of), as in the following poem of Labīd: لِوِرْدٍ تَقْلِصُ الغِيْطانُ عَنْه “for a watering place because of which the fields become diminished." [614] (b)‘an meaning fawqa (above, on), as in the following poem:
لَوْ أَنَّكَ تُلْقِيْ حَنْظَلاً فَوْقَ بَيْضِنَا * تَدَحْرَجَ عَنْ ذَيْ سَامِهِ اْلمُتَقَارِب
“If you threwest colocynths upon our helmets they would roll
along from what is gilded thereof, they being near together.
(Lane’s translation).” [615]
5. فِيْ (in; at; on; near; by; within; during)
a. Fī in the sense of ‘alá as in the expression لاَ يَدْخُلُ اْلخَاتِمُ فِيْ إِصْبِعِيْ meaning لاَ يَدْخُلُ اْلخَاتِمُ عَلىَ إِصْبِعِيْ ("The signet-ring cannnot be inserted into [namely, fit on] my finger"), and in وَلَأُصَلِّبَنَّكُمْ فِي جُذُوعِ النَّخْلِ (طه: ٧١) "And I will assuredly crucify you upon the trunks of palm-trees" (Q. 20:71, Lane) in which fī judhū‘ al-nakhl means ‘alá judhū‘ al-nakhl. [616]
b. Fī in the sense of ilá , as in فَرَدُّوا أَيْدِيَهُمْ فِي أَفْوَاهِهِمْ (إبراهيم: ٩) “And they put their hands to their mouths" (Q. 14:9) in which fī afwāhihim means ‘alá afwāhihim. [617]
c. Fī in the sense of bi, as in the following poem of al-A‘shá: وَإِذَا نُوْشِدَ فِي اْلمَهَارِقِ اْنشَدَا “And if he is requested [to give] the parchments [namely, the books of the prophets] he will respond." Here fī ’l-mahāriq means bi’l-mahāriq. [618] The example from the Qur’ān cited by al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī is as follows: هَلْ يَنْظُرُونَ إِلَّا أَنْ يَأْتِيَهُمُ اللَّهُ فِي ظُلَلٍ مِنَ الْغَمَامِ (البقرة: ٢١٠) “Are they waiting until Allah comes to them with the shadows of the clouds...?" (Q. 2:210) in which fī z.ulal means bi-z.ulal.[619] This is one interpretation. The other interpretation is that there is no substitution of particles in this verse, so that the verse means: "Are they waiting until Allah reveals Himself unto them in the shadows of the clouds?" This is the interpretation adopted by Asad, Pickthall and Ali, [620] which appears to be the more appropriate one.
d. Fī meaning min, as in the following poem of Imru’ al-Qays:
وَهَلْ يَنْعَمَنْ مَنْ كَانَ آخِرُ عَهْدِهِ * ثَلاثيِنَْ شَهْراً في ثَلاثةِ أَحْوالِ
“Can anyone [i.e., the former inhabitant of the consumed (effaced)
ruins] be happy whose most recent time [in happiness] was
thirty months in [i.e., from] the last three years [i.e., the
impossibility of happiness after seperation]?”
Here fī thalāthati ah.wāl means min thalāthati ah.wāl. [621] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: وَيَوْمَ نَبْعَثُ فِي كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ شَهِيدًا عَلَيْهِمْ مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ (النحل: ٨٩) "One day We shall raise from all peoples a witness against them from amongst themselves..." (Q. 16:89, Ali)[622] in which fī kulli ummah means min kulli ummah.
e. Fī meaning ma‘a, as in the expression فُلانٌ عَاقِلٌ فِيْ حِلْم meaning فُلانٌ عَاقِلٌ مَعَ حِلْم ("So-and-so is intelligent as well as gentle").[623] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: فِي تِسْعِ آَيَاتٍ إِلَى فِرْعَوْنَ وَقَوْمِهِ (النمل: ١٢) ".... [And thou shalt go] with nine [of My] messages unto Pharaoh and his people..." (Q. 27:12, Asad).[624] Asad's interpretation of āyāt as "messages" is based on the opinion of some unidentified commentators who "see in it a reference to nine specific commandments or ethical principles...".[625] Others render āyāt as "signs", the miracles performed by Prophet Moses. Therefore, the verse means, according to this view, that the radiant hand, as mentioned in the previous verse, is one in addition to nine other miracles. However, according to other commentators fī means min ("among") rather than ma‘a in this verse, so that the two miracles mentioned earlier, namely, the radiant hand and the staff, are included in the nine miracles. This is the view of al-Nah.h.ās, al-Mahdāwī, al-Qushayrī, and Ibn Kathīr, and on which Pickthall and Ali render their translations.[626]
Al-Zarkashī mentions other meanings of fī, among which are as follows:
a. عِنْدَ (at, with), as in قَالَ أَلَمْ نُرَبِّكَ فِينَا وَلِيدًا وَلَبِثْتَ فِينَا مِنْ عُمُرِكَ سِنِينَ (الشعراء: ١٨) “Pharaoh said: ‘Did we not bring thee up among us when thou wert a child? And didst thou not spend among us years of thy [later] life?’” (Q. 26:18, Asad). Here فِيْنَا means عِنْدَنَا.
b. بَعْـَد (after), as in وَفِصَالُهُ فِي عَامَيْنِ (لقمان: ١٤) “… and his weaning is after two years” (Q. 31:14), namely, the baby stops his total dependance on his mother’s milk after two years. Here fī ‘āmayn means ba‘da ‘āmayn.
c. عَـْن ( about, from), as in وَمَنْ كَانَ فِي هَذِهِ أَعْمَى فَهُوَ فِي الْآَخِرَةِ أَعْمَى (الإسراء: ٧٢) “Amd whoever is blind in these [namely, Allah’s blessings in this mentioned mentioned earlier], he will also become blind about [His blessings in] the Hereafter, [because of his disbelief in them]...” (Q. 17:72). [627] However, translators like Ali and Pickthall, translate فِي in the above verse in its original sense in their respective translations, as follows: “But those who are blind in this world, will be blind in the Hereafter…”, and “for whoever is blind [of heart] in this [world] will be blind in the life to come [as well]…”[628]
6. لِ (for)
a. Li in the sense of ‘alá, as in the expression سَقَطَ فُلَانٌ لِفِيْهِ meaning سَقَطَ فُلَانٌ عَلَى فِيْهِ ("So-and-so fell upon his mouth"), and in وَلَا تَجْهَرُوا لَهُ بِالْقَوْلِ كَجَهْرِ بَعْضِكُمْ لِبَعْضٍ (الحجرات: ٢) "... and neither speak loudly to him, as you would speak loudly to one another, ..." (Q. 49:2, Asad) in which lahu means ‘alayh.[629]
b. Li in the sense of ilá , as in the expression هَدَيْتُ لَهُ ("I guided him to it").[630] The example from the Qur’ān is as follows: بِأَنَّ رَبَّكَ أَوْحَى لَهَا (الزلزلة: ٥) “as thy Sustainer will have inspired her to do." (Q. 99:5, Asad) in which awh.á lahā means awh.á ilayhā.[631]
c. Li meaning min ajli, as in the expression فَعَلْتُ ذَاكَ لَكَ ("I did that for you") meaning فَعَلْتُ ذَاكَ مِنْ أَجْلِكَ ("I did that for your sake"). [632] Ibn al-Jawzī mentions lām al-sabab in the following verse: إِنَّمَا نُطْعِمُكُمْ لِوَجْهِ اللَّهِ (الدهر: ٩) “(Saying): We feed you, for the sake of Allah only." (Q. 76:9, Pickthall) which is probably one example from the Qur’ān. Another probable example from the Qur’ān [633]is as follows: يَقُولُ يَا لَيْتَنِي قَدَّمْتُ لِحَيَاتِي (الفجر: ٢٤) "He will say: Ah, would that I had provided beforehand for my life [to come]." (Q. 89:24, Asad) in which lih.ayātī means min ajli h.ayātī fī ’l-ākhirah ("for the sake of my life in the Hereafter") according to one interpretation; however, according to another, such as that of al-Zarkashī, it means fī h.ayātī ("in my life"). [634]
There are two more substitutions mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah solely in his work Adab al-Kātib and without any example from the Qur’ān, most probably because they occur only in Arabic literature and poetry, as follows:
(a) Li meaning ma‘a, as in the following poem of Mutammim ibn Nuwayrah al-Yarbū‘ī:
فَلَمَّا تَفَرَّقْنَا كَأَنِّي ومالِكاً * لِطُولِ اجْتِمَاعٍ لم نَبِتْ لَيْلَةً مَعَا
“When we separated it was as if Mālik and I did not stay
the night together in spite of the length of the meeting.”
(b) Li meaning ba‘da (after), as in the poem of al-Rā‘ī, as follows:
حتَّى وَرَدْنَ لِتمِّ خِمْسٍ بَائِصٍ * جُدًّا تَعَاوَرُهُ الرِّياحُ وَبِيْلاَ
“Until they [namely, the sheep], after completing five distant [pastures], reached a frontier seized with severe wind successively.”
Here litimmi khimsin means ba‘da tamāmi khimsin. [635]
The example from the Qur’an is given by al-Zarkashī as follows: أَقِمِ الصَّلَاةَ لِدُلُوكِ الشَّمْسِ (الإسراء: ٧٨) “Establish [your] prayer after the sun’s decline …” (Q. 17:78).[636]
7. مِنْ (from)
a. Min in the sense of ‘alá, as in وَنَصَرْنَاهُ مِنَ الْقَوْمِ الَّذِينَ كَذَّبُوا بِآَيَاتِنَا (الأنبياء: ٧٧) “And [We] delivered him from the people who denied Our revelations..." (Q.21:77, Pickthall) in which min al-qawm means ‘alá ’l-qawm. [637]
b. Min in the sense of ‘an, as in the expression حَدَّثَنِيْ فُلانٌ مِنْ فُلاَن meaning حَدَّثَنِيْ فُلانٌ عَنْ فُلان ("So and so related to me from so and so").[638] Although no example is given by Ibn Qutaybah from the Qur’ān, al-Zakrkashī and al-Suyūt.ī cite the following verse as an example: قَدْ كُنَّا فِي غَفْلَةٍ مِنْ هَذَا (الأنبياء: ٩٧) ".... We were indeed heedless of this [promise of resurrection]!..." (Q. 21:97, Asad) in which min hādhā means ‘an hādhā . [639]
c. Min in the sense of bi, as in لَهُ مُعَقِّبَاتٌ مِنْ بَيْنِ يَدَيْهِ وَمِنْ خَلْفِهِ يَحْفَظُونَهُ مِنْ أَمْرِ الله (الرعد : : ١١) “For him are angels ranged before him and behind him, who guard him by Allah's command" (Q. 13:11, Pickthall) in which min amr Allāh means bi-amr Allāh. [640] There are four views concerning the person who is guarded in this verse: every human being, the Prophet, and every prophet. They are all protected till Allah's decree is imposed on them. The other view is that the protectors in the verse are not guardian angels, and the protected person is every ruler who is surrounded by his bodyguards but cannot protect him from Allah's decree. This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and ‘Ikrimah as quoted by al-Qurt.ubī.[641]
d. Min in the sense of fī, as in أَرُونِي مَاذَا خَلَقُوا مِنَ الْأَرْضِ (فاطر: ٤٠) ".... Show me what it is that they have created on earth..." (Q. 35:40, Asad) in which min al-ard. means fī ’l-ard.. [642]
We have seen that in this section Ibn Qutaybah discussed the substitution of particles with others very briefly and incompletely. For example, in his work Ta‘wīl he mentions only one particle that is substituted by fī, namely, ‘alá whereas in his Adab al-Kātib he mentioned five particles that are substituted by fī, including ‘alá and ilá. However, he does not give any example from the Qur’ān for the other three particles, as others did in their works. This number is still small compared to that of al-Dāmaghānī, who mentions eight, and Ibn al-Jawzī as well as al-Suyūt.ī who mentioned ten particles in their works.
ENDNOTES TO CHAPTER IV
1. Ibn Qutaybah’s Ta’wīl, pp. 299-300 and al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, p. 228.
2. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 156.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibn Qutaybah., Ta’wīl, p. 301; and al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, p. 229.
5. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 301.
6. Ibid., p. 302.
7. Ibid. For further details and other interpretations, see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 16, pp. 32-35.
8. Ibid., p. 309.
9. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 155.
10. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 299.
11. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 502
12. Al-Qurt.ubī al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 156.
13. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 309; Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 61.
14. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 114, 117 and 118, and Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 61.
15. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 154.
16. Ibid.
17. For further details, see Dr. Mus.t.afá Zayd, Dirāsāt fī ’l-Tafsīr, pp. 49-50.
18. See Theodor Noldeke and Friedrich Schwally, Geschichte des Qorans i-ii (Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1961), vol. 2, p. 72.
19. See Morris Seale, Qur’ān and Bible (London: Croom Helm Ltd., 1978), pp 34-35.
20. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 268 and 171; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 1, p. 195.
21. James A. Bellamy, "The Mysterious Letters of the Koran: Old Abbreviations of the Basmalah", JAOS xciii (1973), pp. 277-278.
22. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 267-268.
23. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 1, p. 195.
24. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 32-33. This is also the interpretation of ‘Ikrimah, see Noldeke, Geschichte, vol. 2, p. 73.
25. See W. Montgomery Watt, Bell's Introduction to the Qur’ān (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1970), pp. 61-65. For further studies on Western scholars' points of view on this subject, see A. Jeffery, "The Mystic Letters of the Koran", MW xiv (1924), pp. 247-260; Alan Jones, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qur’ān", SI 16 (1962), pp. 5-11; and R. Marston Speight, "The Opening Verses of the Chapters of the Qur’ān", MW 59/3-4 (1969), pp. 205-209. Among Muslim writers on this subject are al-Zarqānī, Manāhil al-‘Irfān, vol. 1, pp. 225-236; Dr. Hāshim Amir ‘Ali, "The Mysterious Letters of the Qur’ān", IC 36 (Jan. 1962), pp. iii-iv; and ‘Alī Nas.ūh. al-T.āhir, "Abbreviations in the Holy Qur’ān", IR (Dec. 1950), pp. 8-12.
26. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 394-5; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 461.
27. For further details, see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 46-48 (al-Rād.i's introduction) and pp. 83-84.
28. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 122.
29. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 8, p. 2989 (supplement)
30. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 187.
31. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; ibid., Tafsīr, p. 253; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 374; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 764; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 506.
32. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 409.
33. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf: Tafsīr al-Qur’ān mimā ’shtabahat Asmā’uh wa Tas.arrafat Ma‘ānīh, presented and edited by Hind Shalabī (Tunis: al-Sharikah al-Tūnīsiyyah lil-Tawzī‘ ,1979), p. 340.
34. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 37.
35. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 116; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 506; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 399; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 27; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 129; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 173 and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 340.
36. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406.
37. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 441; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 406; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 7. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and Ibn al-Jawzī use the term khalq (creation) for the meaning of qad.á in the above verse, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 343 and Nuzhah, pp. 508-509. According to al-Farrā’, the term qad.á in the above verse means "He created and controlled them (khalaqahunna wa h.akamahunna), see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 13. As another example, Ibn Qutaybah cites Q. 41:12, and as a shāhid, he cites the poem of Abū Dhu’ayb where qad.á means "to make", as follows وَعَلَيْهِمَا مَسْرُوْدَتَانِ قَضَا هُمَا * دَاؤُدُ أَوْ صُنَّعُ السَّوَابِغِ تُبَّع "With both of them two coats of mail made by David or [i.e., and] the perfect expert (blacksmith) Tubba‘." See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 441-442 and idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, pp. 17-18; see also [al-Mufad.d.al al-D.abbī], al-Mufad.d.alīyāt, p. 881. This poem is also cited by Ibn Fāris as a shāhid to indicate that the term qad.á in the verse in question means "He decided their creation" (أَحْكَمَ خَلْقَهُنَّّ); see Maqāyis vol. 5, p. 99. Tubba‘ was the title of the kings of Yemen, like the Pharaohs of Egypt, and the Caesars of the Roman empire. Tubba‘ did not make the coats of mail by himself, but by his blacksmiths who were experts in this profession. See also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 186; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 87. Al-Suyūt.ī cites Q. 80:23 as an example of qad.á meaning "to do", see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 129.
38. According to Ibn Qutaybah qad.á nah.bahu means qutila (he was killed), since the verse in question deals with martyrs; see Ta’wīl, p. 183; and idem, Tafsīr, p. 349. For further details, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, pp. 158-160.
39. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 443; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 628; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 474; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 297; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 124. According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, this is the meaning given by Qatādah, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 100.
40. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 304; ‘Ikrimah says that Moses was to choose one of four roads before him; when he made his choice and chose the correct one, he said the verse mentioned above; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 247.
41. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 443; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 297; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 626; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241.
42. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, pp. 8-9.
43. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, 443; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 473; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 627; idem, Qurrah, p. 242; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 298; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, p. 103; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
44. See Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 278.
45. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 475-476; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 629; and idem, Qurrah, p. 244.
46. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; idem, Tafsīr, p. 279; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 13; and al-Farrā’, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 181.
47. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 299 and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
48. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 13; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 103.
49. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 103; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 474; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 256; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 299; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 629.
50. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 444. This is also the view of al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī, Ibn al-Jawzī, al-Zarkashī, and al-Suyūt.ī; see Qāmūs, p. 475; Wujūh, p. 299; Nuzhah, p. 629; al-Burhān, vol. 1, p. 104; and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 123.
51. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 625-30; idem, Qurrah, pp. 241-244; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 96-123; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 1, pp. 102-104; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 122-124; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, pp. 307-8; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 295-300; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 473-476; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 443-444.
52. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 72; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 143; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 306-307; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 134; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 29; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 3, pp. 30-33; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 257; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
53. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, pp. 99 and 313; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 47; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 28; al-Zamakshsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 660; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144.
54.Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, pp. 202 and 218.
55. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, 238.
56. Ibn Qutaybh, Ta’wīl, p. 445.
57. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 49.
58. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 29
59.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43.
60. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, p. 201; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 313; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 660. See also Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 136; Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, p. 218; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 103..
61. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 51
62. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 30; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 144; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 152. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term ummah meaning imām in this verse is the language of the Quraysh, see Gharīb al Qur’ān, p. 53.
63. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al Qur’ān, p. 53.
64. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23. Here Ibn al-Jawzī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 144. Al-Qurt.ubī says that the ummah is the person who combines good things in himself (اْلأُمَّةُ الرَّجُلُ الجَامِع لِلْخَيْر), see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 10, p. 197.E
65. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 445; idem, Tafsīr, p. 249; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 755; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 391; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 114.
66.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 612.
67. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
68. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; idem, Tafsīr, p. 108; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 165. Al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī, and Tiflīsī mention neither this verse nor any other in which the word ummah means a group of ‘ulamā’.
69. Al-Zamakshsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 224; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 483.
70. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; idem, Tafsīr, p. 397; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 136.
71. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, 203
72. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 30.
73. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1324.
74. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 90.
75. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 446 and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 23.
76. Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 28.
77. Lane, Lexicon, pt. p. 90.
78. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 446; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 43; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 143; idem, Qurrah, p. 56; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 129.
79 . See Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 151; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4. 109. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 257 and vol. 4, p. 136.
80. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 447; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 312.
81.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209
82.Al-Suyūt.ī Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 628.
83. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 448; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 336-337. Ibn ‘Abbās says that the term ‘ahd includes a promise; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 382.
84. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 350; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 447; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 15, p. 47. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of the said verse is as follows: "Have I not commanded you (أَلَمْ آمُرْكَ) through the tongues of prophets and messengers in the revealed books not to worship Satan...?"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, 430.
85. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 337. No Qur’ānic verse was given as an example by Ibn Qutaybah. For the h.adīth, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 312.
86. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 447. Again, no Qur’ānic verse was given by Ibn Qutaybah as an example here.
87. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 448 and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 209.
88. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 201 and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 448. For further details on the meanings of of ‘ahd see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 2182-2183 (s.v. عهد).
89. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 449; Sufyān al-Thawrī, Tafsīr al-Qur’ān al-Karīm, ed. and annot. Imtiyāz ‘Alī ‘Arshī, 1st ed. (Rampur: Hindustan Printing Works, 1385/1965), p. 81; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
90. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 20.
91. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75.
92. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 47.
93.Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 394-395.
94.Ibn Qutaybah, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, p. 532
95.Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
96.Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 109.
97. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 449 and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 21.
98.Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 395.
99. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 450; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz, vol. 1, p. 253; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 395. Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī mentions "pact" as well as "kinship" as the meaning of ill in the above Qur’ānic verse; see al-Mufradāt, p. 20.
100. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 530.
101. See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, pp. 73-74
102. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p. 171; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 31.
103. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 342.
104. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 484; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 73; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566. According to al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī the term qunūt in this h.adīth means "keeping oneself busy with worship and avoiding any other activity" (اْلإشْتِغَالُ بِاْلعِبَادَةِ وَرَفْضُ مَا سِوَاه), see al-Mufradāt, p. 413. The h.adīth was reported by Muslim, al-Nasā’ī, Ibn Mājah, al-Tirmidhī and Ah.mad on the authority of Jābir ibn ‘Abd Allāh; see Wensinck, al-Mu‘jam, vol. 5, p. 473 (s.v. قنط); it was also reported by al-Bayhaqī, see al-Sunan al-Kubrá, vol. 3, p. 8.
105. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451; idem, Tafsīr, p. 382; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241.
106. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 51.
107. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 451.
108. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; Abū al-H.usayn Sa‘īd Hibat Allāh al-Rāwandī, Fiqh al-Qur’ān, ed. al-Sayyid Ah.mad al-H.usaynī, 2 vols. (Qumm: al-Mat.ba‘ah al-‘Ilmiyyah, 1397 A.H.), vol. 1, p. 100; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 31; Lane translated the above verse as follows: "And stand ye unto God, in the divinely-appointed act of prayer, refraining from talking"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566.
109.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 163.
110.Al- Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 391; Ibn al-Jawzī , Nuzhah, p. 483; and al-Suyūt.ī, Asbāb al-Nuzūl (Cairo: Dār al-Tah.rīr lil-T.ab‘ wa ’l-Nashr, 1382 A.H.), p. 33.
111. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 452; idem, Tafsīr, p. 340; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 147; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 391; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 241. According to Ibn ‘Abbās and Abū ‘Ubaydah the term قَانِتُوْن in the said verse means مُطِيْعُوْن (obedient); see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 302; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 121.
112. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta‘wīl, p. 452; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 147. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 484; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2566.
113.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 358.
114.Al-Suyūt.ī Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 173.
115. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 23; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 9; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 24; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115
116. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 169 (s.v. دين).
117. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 453.
118.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 234; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 513 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 286.
119. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 453-454; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 255; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 116. Al-Zamakhshsarī, however, mentions "the religion of Islam which is the truth" as the meaning of dīn al-h.aqq in the above verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 537.
120. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 454 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 101. According to Ibn al-Jawzī, dīn here means "number" (‘adad); see Nuzhah, p. 298; and idem, Qurrah, p. 115. Both Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī mention al-h.isāb as one of the meanings of the dīn, with different examples; the former with Q. 24:25, and the latter with Q. 83:11; see Nuzhah, p. 297; idem, Qurrah, p. 115; and Qāmūs, p. 178.
121. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 541.
122. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 943.
123. Beside millah, al-Dāmaghānī mentions also الدِّيْنُ بِعَيْنِهِ as another meaning of dīn; Qāmūs, pp. 178-179; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 298; idem, Qurrah, p. 116; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 102; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 102; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 1625; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 523. Al-Qurt.ubī mentions t.ā‘ah and millah as the meaning of dīn on the said verse, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 43.
124. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 498. Abū ‘Ubaydah's and al-Tabarsi's interpretation of mawālīkum in the said verse is "your paternal cousins" and "associate (allies)"; Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 134; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 337.
125. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 498; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 408. This is the meaning of mawālī in this verse in the language of the Quraysh, according to Ibn ‘Abbās, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 43; and Abū ‘Ubayd al-Qāsim ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il al-Wāridah fī ’l-Qur’ān al-Karīm: Riwāyah ‘an al-S.ah.ābī ’l-Jalīl Ibn ‘Abbās Rad.iya ’llāh ‘anh. Edited, commented, and annotated by Dr. ‘Abd al-H.amīd al-Sayyid T.alab (Kuwayt: Mat.bū‘āt Jāmi‘at al-Kuwayt, 1985), p. 82.
126. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 1; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 47; and al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278.
127. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 46. The h.adīth was reported by al-Dārimī and Abū Dā’ūd, al-Tirmidhī, Ibn Mājah and Ah.mad ibn H.anbal; see Wensinck, al-Mu‘jam, vol. 1, p. 190 (s.v. بطل); it was also reported by al-Bayhaqī, see al-Sunan al-Kubrá, vol. 7, p. 138.
128. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 215; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1365; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 100.
129.Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 497; and al-Dāmaghānī, Wujūh, p. 278.
130. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 455; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1343; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 67. However, according to al-Dāmaghānī and al-Tiflīsī, mawlá in this verse means "a relative among the disbelievers", see Qāmūs, p. 497, and Wujūh, p. 278.
131. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 456; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 49; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 409.
132. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 455-456.
133. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 335.
134.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 338.
135. For further details of the term mawlá, see al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 278; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 496-498; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 46-50; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 265.
136. Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 390.
137. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409 and idem, Qurrah, p. 164.
138. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1796.
139.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 196-197. See also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1616; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 506.
140. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 457; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 347; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 82; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 184; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 182; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 398; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 393; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 293; al-Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 183; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 409; and idem, Qurrah, p. 166. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 343; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1797.
141. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 45; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 408. Ibn al-Jawzī mentions also Q. 18:104 as an example, while al-Dāmaghānī mentions Q. 47:1 and 8, and Q. 18:104; see Qurrah, p. 166; and Qāmūs, p. 293.
142. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 131; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 331; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 466; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1112; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 328; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 392.
143. The example of d.alāl meaning jahl but nisyān according to Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 26:20. The example of d.alāl meaning khusrān is Q. 36:24 and 40:25; see Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 181-182; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 407-409; idem, Qurrah, pp. 165-166; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 292.
144. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 102; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 201. See also Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126, and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
145. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459 and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126. According to Ibn Kathīr this is the view of Abū al-‘Āliyah, al-H.asan and al-D.ah.h.āk, see Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 574.
146. Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, also mentions another interpretation, namely "the book", as mentioned earlier; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 386. Lane also mentions the four interpretations above; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
147. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 430; see also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 778.
148. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 148; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī simply interpret imām as lawh. (tablet), whereas Abū ‘Ubaydah interprets it as kitāb (a book); see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1184; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 418; and Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 158.
149. See Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 149; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 343; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 91; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 459; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr vol. 2, p. 576; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 724. See also al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 126 and idem, Qurrah, p. 50.
150.Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 52; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 158, n.1.
151. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 354. For more details on the meanings of imām, see Ibn Manz.ūr, vol. 12, pp. 24-26; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 91.
152. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 460; idem, Tafsīr, p. 192; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 237; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p, 167; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 268; Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 80; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 562; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 67; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, pp. 160-161; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 125; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, pp. 464-465; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 285. According to Yah.yá ibn Sallām, the meaning of صَلاة in the above verse is اْلإسْتِغْفَار (asking forgiveness), see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 166.
153. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 460; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721.
154. Al- Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, 125
155. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 28; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 394-395; and idem, Qurrah, p. 161.
156. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1635.
157. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 173.
158. Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, p. 465. For further details, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, pp. 1720-1721. If s.alāh here means istighfār, in other verses of the Qur’ān, the term istighfār means s.alāh (prayer), as in Q. 3:17, 8:33, and 51:18, see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 90; and idem, Qurrah, p. 30; see also al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 341.
159. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 461; idem, Tafsīr, p. 208; Tiflīsū, Wujūh, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 395; idem, Qurrah, p. 161; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 125. Ibn Qutaybah mentions also the other meaning of s.alāh in the above verse, namely, "reading" which is the view of al-A‘mash; see Ta’wīl, p. 461; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 62; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, p. 87.
160. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 188.
161. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 626.
162.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 525 and idem, Qurrah, p. 205.
163. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462.
164.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 247; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 400.
165. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p.255; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 514-515; and idem, Qurrah, p. 206.
166.Al- T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 255.
167.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1462.
168. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 247; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 515; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 699. .
169.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 265.
170. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 462; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 352; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 248. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 3:53 and Q. 7:156
171. Al-Zamakhsharī, al- Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1462 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 255.
172. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 160; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 38.
173. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 463; see also Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 514; idem, Qurrah, p. 206; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 248.
174. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178.
175. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wil, p. 463.
176. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 178.
177. See al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 424.
178. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 458.
179. See Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1825.
180. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 490; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 813; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 413. Al-Dāmaghānī suggests "the stopping places of the roads" (مَنَازِلُ الطُّرُق) , whereas Tiflīsī states that it is "the roads and the stopping places of the land" (الْطُرُقُ وَمَنَازِلُ الأرْض ) for the meaning of sabab in the above verse; see Qāmūs, p. 225, and Wujūh, p. 126.
181. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 225; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 126; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 247 ("places of ascent and roads" rather than "doors" in p. 113); "their roads and doors", according to al-Zamakhsharī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1280; "their places of ascent" (marāqīhā) or "their regions" (نَوَاحِيْهَا), see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 458.
182. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 524.
183. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1285.
184. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464; instead of wa law nāla it is written wa in yurqá in Zuhayr's Dīwān, see Zuhayr ibn Abī Sulmá, Dīwān (Beirut: Dār Bayrūt lil-T.ibā‘ah wa ’l-Nashr, 1406/1986), p. 87. For the meanings of sabab see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 257.
185. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 464 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 67.
186.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 223.
187. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 116.
188.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 159.
189.Al- T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 482.
190. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 464-465; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 67. H.abl min Allāh according to al-Dāmaghānī means "the religion of Islam", see Qāmūs, p. 116. According Ibn ‘Abbās, Mujāhid, al-H.asan, Qatādah and Abū ‘Ubaydah h.abl in this verse means ‘ahd (covenant); see al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 1, p. 311; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 488; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 101. According to al-Zamakhsharī the term h.abl in the said verse means dhimmah (covenant of protection); see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 227.
191. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 465; al-A‘shá, Dīwān, p. 151; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 101; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 135; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 158.
192. See al-Murs.ifī, Raghbat al-Āmil ([Cairo]: al-Nahd.ah, 1348/[1929]), vol. 4, p. 52, with the commentary of Mah.mūd Muh.ammad Shākir, quoted by al-Sayyid A. S.aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 465, n. 2; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 135.
193. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 467; idem, Tafsīr, pp. 28-9; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 426; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 373.
194. Ibn al-Jawzī, however, gives many examples, among which are: Q. 2:35, 3:57, and 4:10; see Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 173.
195. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 467; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 215; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 308; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 195; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 427; idem, Qurrah, p. 173; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 316.
196. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 327.
197.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 413
198. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 467-468; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 216; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 402; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 87; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 800; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 468; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 309; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 316; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1920 (s.v. ظلم); Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 427; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174. Other examples given by Ibn Qutaybah are Q. 2:57, 19:60 and 36:54.
199. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 468; idem, Tafsīr, p. 165; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 196; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 428; idem, Qurrah, p. 174; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 399. Al-Zamakhsharī interprets yaz.limūn in this verse as يُكَذِّبُوْنَ بِهَا ظُلْمًا ("they wrongly deny it"), see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 439.
200. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 310; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 196-197; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 428; and idem, Qurrah, p. 174.
201.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p.; 503.
202. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 469-470. This explanation of Ibn Qutaybah is quoted by Ibn al-Jawzī, see Nuzhah, p. 189 and idem, Qurrah, p. 71.
203.Al-Murtad.á, Amālī, vol. 4, p. 24.
204. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 469; idem, Tafsīr, p. 373; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 77; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49.
205. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 469; Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 217; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49. The above verse, however, is treated by Ibn Qutaybah as an example for the term balā’ meaning "a test", see Ta’wīl, p. 469. The other example given by Tiflīsī is Q. 7:168. Al-Suyūt.ī uses the term makrūh instead of al-sharr for the meaning of fitnah in the above verse, see Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 261.
206. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 370; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 217; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 69; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 77; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 49. This meaning is also advanced by Al-Suyūt.ī on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās in the above verse, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 6 and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 620.
207. Al-Zamakhsharī , al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 75; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, pp. 105-106.
208. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 469; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 191; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 313; idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 5, p. 352.
209. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 38 and ibid., n. 1; see also Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 47 and ibid., n. 1.
210. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; idem, Tafsīr, p. 177; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 173; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al- Zamakhsharī, al-T.abarsī and Tiflīsī give here وَسْوَسَةُ الشَّيْطَان (Satan's temptation) instead of كَيْدُ الشَّيْطَان as the meaning of رِجْزُ الشَّيْطَان, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 504, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 526, and Wujūh, p. 110. Ibn Kathīr mentions "temptation" (وَسْوَسَة ) and "evil idea" (خَاِطٌر سَيِّء) as the meaning of rijz in the verse in queston; see Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 304. Yah.yá ibn Sallām mentions وَسَاوِس (pl. of وَسْوَسَة) only, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 321.
211.Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 46; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 112, n. 1.
212. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 321; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110. Al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī use here the term al-s.anam (the idol, the image) instead of al-awthān, see Qāmūs, 191, Nuzhah, p. 314; and idem, Qurrah, p. 124; al-Suyūt.ī puts it in plural, namely al-as.nām (the idols), see Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137, as well as in singular, see Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 563.
213. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, pp. 200-201. Another interpretation is that of al-Jubbā’ī, namely, "avoid bad deeds and blameworthy character", whereas an unidentified commentator who is probably of s.ūfī leaning says that the verse means "take out the love of the world from your heart because it is the head of every sin". See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 385.
214. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; idem, Tafsīr, p. 495; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1546.
215. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 6, pp. 94-96.
216. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 471; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 110; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 137. See also al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 84; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 572. According to Ibn Kathīr the meaning of rijs in the above verse is "doubt"; see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 417.
217. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 320; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 478-479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī call it al-ibtilā’ (trial) instead of al-ikhtibār, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 180, Qāmūs, p. 348 and Wujūh, p. 216. Both al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī use the term al-imtih.ān (test) for the interpretation of the term fitnah in the above verse.
218. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Yah.yá ibn Sallām uses the term عَذَاب (punishment), whereas Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-T.abarsī use the term أَذىً (offense) and أَذِيَّة (pl. of أَذىً) as the meaning of fitnah in the above verse. See al-Tas.ārīf, p. 18, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 114 and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 274.
219. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 472; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1595; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, 348; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217. Al-Suyūt.ī mentions a different example, namely, يَوْمَ هُمْ عَلَى النَّارِ يُفْتَنُونَ (الذاريات: ١٣) “(It is) the day when they will be tormented at the Fire, ..." (Q. 51:13, Pickthall); see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. This example is also given by Yah.yá ibn Sallām, see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 181
220. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 468 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2335.
221. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 529.
222. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; others mention al-s.add only, see Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 217; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 479; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 349; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
223. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 168; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 363.
224. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; others use the term al-shirk rather than al-ishrāk; see Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 179; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 347-348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, pp. 192-193; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
225. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 287.
226. See Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 233.
227. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 68; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2336. For further details on this verse, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 132.
228. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī respectively interpret fitnah here as mih.nah (severe trial, affliction) and "an affliction (balīyah) which appears in their hearts, such as hypocrisy"; however, T.abarsī gives also another interpretation, namely, "punishment in this world". See al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 964; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 158. According to Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Suyūt.ī the term fitnah in this verse means ‘uqūbah (punishment), see Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480 and idem, Qurrah, p. 195; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. Al-Suyūt.ī does not include kufr as one of the fifteen meanings of fitnah in his al-Itqān. Al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī cite Q. 3:7 as the example from the Qur’ān in which fitnah means kufr, but according to al-Suyūt.īit means al-id.lāl (misleading), see al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 348; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 478; idem, Qurrah, p. 193; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 126.
229. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 261; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 216; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127 (in idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169 it is written al-d.alālah which is a misprint and should be al-ithm); al-Dāmaghānī suggests kufr, whereas al-T.abarsī suggests الْعِصْيَانُ وَ اْلكُفْر as the meaning of fitnah in this verse, see, Qāmūs, p. 348 and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 37.
230. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 473-474; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 218; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 480; idem, Qurrah, p. 194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169. According to al-Dāmaghānī, the term fitnah in this verse means fitnah itself, namely, temptation.
231. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 474.
232.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 370.
233.Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 150; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 595; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 128; and Ibn Manz.ūr Lisān, vol. 13, p. 317.
234. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, p. 402.
235. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 473; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 179-182; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 348-9; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 216-218; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 479-480; Qurrah, pp. 193-194; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 126-127; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 169.
236. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1139; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; al-Dāmaghānī. Qāmūs, p. 355. Ibn al-Jawzī uses the term al-ilzam (duty, obligation) as the meaning of al-fard. in the above verse, see Nuzhah, p. 468. Ibn Qutaybah includes in this category of meaning the following verse: فَرِيضَةً مِنَ اللَّهِ (النساء: ١١ ) “.... It is an injunction from Allah..." (Q. 4:11, Pickthall), whereas according to al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī, the term farīd.ah here means farīd.ah itself, namely, religious duty. See Ta’wīl, p. 475; Qāmūs, 356; and Wujūh, p. 221.
237. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 355; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2373.
238. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 271
239. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 475; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 12, p. 158; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 244; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 376.
240. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 63; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 124; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 7, p. 302 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, pp. 2373-2374.
241. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 475-476; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 189; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 112; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 356; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 221; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468. The term farad.a in the verse could also mean the injunction to follow the contents of the Qur’ān, see Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 476; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1068; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 269; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 376.
242. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 476; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 188; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 355; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 468. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation on this verse is that Allah allowed or enjoined the Prophet to marry the divorced wife of his adopted son; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 361. A similar view is that of al-Zamakhsharī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1133.
243. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 477; and idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 35.
244. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 94; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 282.
245. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 477-478; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 178; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 414; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 553; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 93-4; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 167; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 282.
246. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 478; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 177; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 93; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 166; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 281-282.
247. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 536.
248. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 245; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 136; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1414.
249. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 313.
250. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 95.
251. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 245.
252. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 138. For further details, see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 234-235.
253. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 479; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 244.
254. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 303; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 488; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 645; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 218. It is also the interpretation given by Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn Fāris, see Wujūh, p. 41; Qāmūs, p. 47; and Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 135.
255. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 108; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 41; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 47.
256. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1486; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 291.
257. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 481; and Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 108-109.
258. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 481-482, and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 47-48.
259.For further details, see Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, pp. 512-513; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 680; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 268.
260. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 338; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 290; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 180-1. Ibn al-Jawzī makes the distinction between d.urr and d.arr; the former is used for misfortune, the latter for the opposite of benefit as in the above example; see Nuzhah, p. 403.
261. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179. It includes sickness according to al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 397; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 281.
262. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483. Al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 6:42 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 289; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404. Like in the previous verse, al-T.abarsī and Ibn Kathīr interprets d.arrā’ in this verse as shiddah and balā’, including drought; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 101. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr. vol. 2, p. 427. Pickthall translates it as "adversity".
263. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 427; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404.
264. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 404.
265. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 483; al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī mention Q. 3:144 and 4:113 as examples, see Qāmūs, p. 289; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 180; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 405.
266. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 290; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 404-405.
267. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 674; and al-T.abarsī Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 260.
268. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 69; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 233.
269. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 124; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
270. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qurān, p. 57; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 90.
271. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol.2, p. 395; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 370; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 437; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 123; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 71; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
272. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 209.
273. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 45; and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, pp. 98 and 101.
274. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 210.
275. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 484; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 155; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 124; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 239.
276. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 485; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 462.
277. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 213; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 322; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
278. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 486; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 782-783; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 437. See also Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 65.
279. See M. Asad, The Message, p. 432, n. 101.
280. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 486; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 284; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 360; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 304; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 132; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 454; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1180; al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 2:253 which is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Qāmūs, p. 212; and Ta’wīl, p. 486.
281. Ibn Qutaybah cites also Q. 17:85 as an example, see Ta’wīl, p. 486; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 496-497; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132.
282.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, pp. 186-187; see also al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 30, pp. 15-16; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 427; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1573; and M. Asad, The Message, p. 924.
283.Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
284. See Carlile H. Macartney, ed., Dīwān Shi‘r Dhī ’l-Rummah (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1919), p. 176; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 460; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 205.
285. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 117; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133.
286. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 892; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 62.
287. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487.
288. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1274, Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212. Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 16:2 as the example of rūh. meaning wah.y; see Nuzhah, p. 323; and idem, Qurrah, p. 132.
289. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 6; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 517.
290. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 212; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 116; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
291. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 255.
292. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 488; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 253; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 131; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 323-324; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 128.
293.Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1337.
294. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 228.
295. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 323; idem, Qurrah, p. 133; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127; and idem, al-Mu‘tarak, vol.2, p. 122.
296.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 145.
297. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 127.
298. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 487.
299. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 16, p. 54. According to al-T.abarsī, Qatādah's and al-Suddī's interpretation of rūh. in this verse is respectively the Qur’ān and the Holy Spirit (Gabriel), see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 37.
300. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489;
301.Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 379.
302.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, pp. 85-86.
303. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 621; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237.
304. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 119; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; idem, Qurrah, p. 237; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 505; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 380; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 305-306. This is the view of Qatādah, al-Kalbī and Ibn Munabbih. The other view is that of Mujāhid and ‘Ikrimah, that the term awh.á in this verse means respectively, "wrote on the ground", and "wrote in a scroll", see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, p. 85.
305.Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, p. 85.
306.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489.
307. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 325; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 263; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 237.
308.Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 516.
309.Abū Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 182; and al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 390.
310. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 489; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 26; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238.
311. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 490; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 423; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 515; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238.
312. Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 385.
313.Ibn Kathir, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 577.
314.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 490; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 306; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 622; and idem, Qurrah, p. 238. It is noteworthy that Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī, give us respectively seven and ten meanings of the term wah.y.
315. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 526; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 283.
316. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 491; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 244; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 220; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 353.
317. Ibn Qutaybah Ta’wīl, p. 491; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 243; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 109; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 219-220; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361.
318. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 491; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 410; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 266; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 219; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 352-353; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2361.
319.Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 410.
320. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 250; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 580; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186.
321.Al-Zamakhsharī al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1268.
322. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 250; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 463; idem, Qurrah, p. 186; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347. "Conquest and victory over the enemies (فَتْحٌ وَظَفَرٌعَـلىَ اْلأعْدَاء) " is the meaning of the above verse according to al-T.abarsī's interpretation, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 127.
323. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 492; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 249; Tiflīsī, Wujūh. p. 215; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 462; and idem, Qurrah, p. 186.
324.Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 149; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 546; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 390.
325.Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 215; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 347.
326. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494; Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention h.asan (good) as the translation of the term karīm in the above verse, see Wujūh, p. 250; and Qāmūs, p. 403.
327. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 38. This is also the interpretation rendered by Ibn al-Jawzī, see Nuzhah, p. 522.
328. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494, and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 522.
29.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 224.
330. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 494 and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250. Here Ibn al-Jawzī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah, see Nuzhah, p. 522;
331. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 495; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 522; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250.
332. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 250, and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 403.
333. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 284; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 610. Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī cite Q. 14:24 as the example of the term mathal meaning shabah. See Qurrah, p. 216; and Wujūh, p. 264.
334. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 254; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 52; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 612; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 428; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 216; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 265. This is the interpretation of Mujāhid; see Ibn Kathir, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 141.
335. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 496; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 296; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, p. 611; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 428-9; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 217.
336. Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 189.
337.Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 60.
338. According to Ibn al-Jawzī the basic meaning of d.arb is striking with something like a whip, see Qurrah, p. 163.
339. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 397; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 401-402; and idem, Qurrah, p. 164. Al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 8:12 as an example see Qāmūs, p. 288; see also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 1778.
340. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 497; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 382; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 178; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 398; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 401; and idem, Qurrah, p. 163.
341. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 497.
342.Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 402; idem, Qurrah, p. 164; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 375.
343. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 288; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 179. For other meanings of d.arb, see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 619.
344. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 498 and 340; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123. According to Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī the meaning of azwāj in Q. 4:12 and Q. 2:25 is "wives". See Qurrah, p. 140; and Qāmūs, p. 219.
345. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 498; idem, Tafsīr, p. 365; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 16; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1190; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 424; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 337; idem, Qurrah, p. 140; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 219-220.
346. For another example, see Q. 81:7. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 498; idem, Tafsīr, p. 370; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 220; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 123; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 336; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 139-140.
347. See al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 23:31.
348.Al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 441.
349. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 339-340; idem, Tafsīr, p. 162; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 641; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 373 (no. 281); al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 48; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 113; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 2, p. 291.
350.Al- Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 430.
351.Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, pp. 1266-1267, and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 35.
352. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 188.
353. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 45; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 320; idem, Qurrah, pp. 128-129; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 188.
354. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 499; and idem, Tafsīr, p. 128.
355. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 108; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 189, al-Zamakhsharī al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 293; and al-Zamakhsharī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 53. Among the examples of أَلَمْ تَرَ meaning "have not you been informed" given by al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī are Q. 2:258 and Q. 105:1, see al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 189; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 108-109; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 320-321; and idem, Qurrah, p. 130.
356. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 320 and idem, Qurrah, p. 129.
357. S.I. Hayakawa, Choose the Right Word: A Modern Guide to Synonyms (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 610.
358.For further details, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 5, pp. 246-247 and 263-264; and al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 1, pp. 402-403 and 408-409; see also Asad, The Message, p. 113, n. 66.
359. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 500; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 285; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 455; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 580; and idem, Qurrah, p. 226.
360. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 500; idem, Tafsīr, p. 283; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 193; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 285; al-Dāmaghānī. Qāmūs, pp. 454-455; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 379-380; idem, Qurrah, p. 226; and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, pp. 422-423. Al-Zamakhsharī also mentions "forget" as the other meaning of nasiya in this verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 868.
361. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 32.
362. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 69; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 508; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 391; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and Tiflisi, Wujūh, p. 169. Al-Dāmaghānī, mentions the meaning as اْلمَوْتُ بِاْلآجَالِ مِنْ غَيْرِ عَذَاب (death at the appointed time without being punishment), see Qāmūs, p. 281, whereas Ibn Fāris renders the meaning of s.a‘iqa in the above verse as "death caused by lightning", see Maqāyīs, vol. 3, pp. 285-286. Lane mentions several meanings, namely, "shall die", "shall fall down dead" or "in a swoon", or "shall lose their reason"; see Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1690. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word صَاعِـقَـة meaning “death” is the language of Ghassān, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 38, and in the language of Oman, see Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, P. 46.
363. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 169; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 280. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī interpret s.ā‘iqah respectively as "a severe punishment like a thunderbolt" and "a punishment like that inflicted on ‘Ād and Thamūd", see al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1293, and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 7.
364. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 170; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 281; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 281.
365. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 392; idem, Qurrah, p. 160; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 475. Al-Dāmaghānī uses Q. 2:55-56 as the example of the term s.ā‘iqah meaning "death from punishment other than the appointed time, and the person concerned returns to the world", namely, "unconsciousness", see Qāmūs, p. 280.
366. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 475.
367. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502.
368. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 12. Both al-Zamakhsharī and mention akhraja ("take out") as the meaning of akhadha in this verse, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 489; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 497.
369. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 20; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 10; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 133.
370. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 502 and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 28. According to al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī, the meaning of the term in this verse is "arrest" only, not "taking a prisoner", see Qāmūs, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 133, and Wujūh, p. 11. Ibn Kathīr mentions the meaning of khudh in the above verse as baddil (exchange), see Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 504.
371. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 503; al-Dāmaghānī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Tiflīsī use the meaning ‘adhāb (punishment, torture) instead of ta‘dhīb for the term akhdh in the above verse, see Qāmūs, p. 21, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Wujūh, p. 11.
372. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 134; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 11. See also al-T.abarsī, Maj ma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 514 and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 77.
373. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 30.
374. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 504; idem, Tafsīr, p. 33; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 345. Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention mulk only as the meaning of the term, see Wujūh, pp. 133-134 and Qāmūs, p. 243,
375. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 504; idem, Tafsīr, p. 33; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 83; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1276; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 519; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 133; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 242-243.; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 345.
376. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 185. Tiflīsī suggests القَحْطُ والشِّدَّة (drought and hardship) as the meaning ofالبَأْسَاء وَ الضَّرَّاء in the above verse. Al-Dāmaghānī mentions different verses, namely Q. 7:94 and 2:14, in which البَأْسَاء وَ الضَّرَّاء , according to him, meansالفَقْرُوَالشَِدَّة (poverty and hardship); see Qāmūs, 62.
377. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 184. Ibn Kathīr, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī mention ‘adhāb as the meaning of the term in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 97; Wujūh, p. 42 ; and Qāmūs, p. 62. Lane mentions both "punishment" and "severe punishment" as the meaning of the term ba’s; see Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146.
378. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 505; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 146. Ibn al-Jawzī mentions al-shiddah fī ’l-qitāl, whereas Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī simply suggest al-qitāl (the fighting) as the meaning of the term in the above verse; see Wujūh, p. 42; and Qāmūs, p. 62.
379. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, pp. 799-800; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, pp. 213-214; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 157; and Zuhayr, Dīwān, p. 29 in which it is written فَلَأَنْتَ instead of وَلَأَنْتَ. What the poet means, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, is as follows: "If you consider doing something you execute and accomplish it, while others consider but they do not execute it, because they do not have a firm decision, while you are firm in your decision." See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 87.
380. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506 and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10. p. 88.
381. Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 800.
382. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 198; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 88; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 107; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 163.
383. Al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 19. p. 60, and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 125-126. See also al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1004.
384. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 281; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 355.
385. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 506; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 119; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 262; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 91; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 284; idem, Qurrah, p. 108; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 163.
386. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 85. Ibn al-Jawzī uses the term al-ījād (making, bringing into being) here, see Nuzhah, p. 284; and Qurrah, p. 107. Quoting Q. 32:4 and 23:12, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī give the example in the Qur’ān in which al-khalq means al-khalq fī ’l-dunyā (creation in the world); see Qāmūs, p. 164; and Wujūh, p. 90.
387. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 507; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1094; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 10, p. 85; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 90; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 285; and idem, Qurrah, p. 108.
388. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, p. 31; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 303; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 801.
389. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 14, p. 31. There are two h.adīths in which the Prophet prohibited castrating domestic animals: one on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbās, and the other, on the authority of Ibn ‘Umar. For further details, see ibid., vol. 5, pp. 390-1.
390. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227.
391. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197.
392. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1508; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048.
393. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 127; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 196.
394.Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508.
395. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 419; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 575.
396. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1047. Both interpretations are also mentioned by Ibn Fāris, see Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 494.
397. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 517; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 169; and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 130.
398. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 508; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 796; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 227; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 112; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 319; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 134 and vol. 13, p. 563; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1048. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the term رَجْم meaning ظَنّ is the language of Hudhayl, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 54.
399. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 460; and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 398.
400. Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 54.
401. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 111; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 318; idem, Qurrah, p. 128; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 197; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 190; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 3, p. 1049.
402. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 509; idem, Tafsīr, p. 330; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 246; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 349; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 130; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 238; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 228.
403. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 509; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 309; Tiflīsī, Wujūh. p. 130; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 237; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366.
404. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 452; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, pp. 16-17; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 171; and Ibn Qutaybah, Tafsīr, p. 373
405. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 310; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 553; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 501; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 350; idem, Qurrah, p. 143; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 130; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 237.
406. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510, and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 4, p. 1366. Tiflīsī and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī use the word jahd (exertion, effort) instead of jidd for the meaning of sa‘y in the above verse, whereas al-T.abarsī uses both words; see Wujūh, p. 130, al-Mufradāt, p. 233; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 377. Yah.yá ibn Sallām and al-Dāmaghānī keep the meaning ‘amal for the term sa‘y in the above verse, while Abū ‘Ubaydah mentions "disbelieving", see al-Tas.ārīf, p. 310; Qāmūs, p. 237; and Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 142.
407. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 510; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 349; and idem, Qurrah, p. 143.
408. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 282; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 553-554; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 266. For al-Dāmaghānī, the meaning of the term in the above verse is al-h.arā’ir (free women), see Qāmūs, p. 135.
409. See Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 260; and Jāmi‘, vol. 5, pp. 2-7.
410. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 69.
411. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; idem, Mukhtalif al-H.adīth, p. 193; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 1, p. 486; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 34; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 218; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 266; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 134-135.
412. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 511; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 553; idem, Qurrah, p. 217; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 288. Instead of Q. 24:4 above, al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī cite the verse مُحْصَنَات غَيْرُ مُسَافِحَات (chaste not debauched) in Q. 4:25, see Qāmūs, p. 135; and Wujūh, p. 266.
413. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512. Al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī give al-balāgh (reaching the end) as the meaning of matā‘ in this verse, although Ibn al-Jawzī also mentions Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation; see Qāmūs, p. 427, and Nuzhah, pp. 558-559.
414. See Tafsīr Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 46. This is also the meaning given by al-Qurt.ubī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 321.
415. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 70; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 87; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263.
416. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, 553; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 461; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 287. Al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī specify the "useful substances", namely, minerals, such as gold, iron, and brass as the meaning of matā‘ in the above verse, see Qāmūs, p. 428 and Wujūh, p. 264.
417. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 249; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 947; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 427; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 8, p. 332; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 293, and Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 559. Al-T.abarsī's inter-pretation of matā‘ here is istimtā‘ (enjoyment), see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 136.
418. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 345.
419. See al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 428; al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 461; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 263; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 559; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 163-164.
420. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 128. Ibn Kathīr, Al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī and Ibn al-Jawzī interpret al-kāfī (sufficient) for the meaning of h.isāb in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 496; al-Mufradāt, pp. 116-117; Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 95. Ibn Manz.ūr interprets the meaning of عَطَاءً حِسَابًا as "an abundant and sufficient gift"; the expression شَيْءٌ حِسَاب means "something sufficient"; in the language of the Hudhayl tribe the expressionأَتَانِيْ حِسَابٌ مِنَ النَّاس means "a large group (جَمَاعَة كَثِيْرَة) of people came to me". See Lisān, vol. 1, p. 313, s.v. حسب . Besides "sufficient" Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī mention another meaning of h.isāb in the above verse, namely, "recompense" and "based on the reckoning of their deeds" (عَلىَ حِسَابِ أَعْمَالِهِمْ) respectively; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 283; and al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1572. Qatādah's interpretation of h.isāb here is "abundant", whereas that of Mujāhid is "recompense", see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 14.
421. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 512; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 72; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 128; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 251; and Qurrah, p. 94.
422. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 513; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 251; and idem, Qurrah, p. 94. Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give different meanings of h.isāban in the above verse, namely, عَدَدًا يَسِيْرًا(easy number) and عَـرْضًا يَسِيْرًا (easy presentation) respectively, see Wujūh, p. 72; and Qāmūs, p. 129.
423. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40. Al-Zamakhsharī and al-T.abarsī also give the similar meaning; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 450; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 428.
424. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 231; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 926; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 109; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 30-31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 38-39.
425. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 231; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 33; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 62; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39. They disputed among themselves concerning the resurrection, whether it will be the soul only or body and soul; another interpretation is that they disputed among themselves concerning the length of time the people of the cave had spent in their cave and what to do with them. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 794, and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 490.
426. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 173; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39. According to Ibn ‘Abbās and al-H.asan qud.iya ’l-amr means "the matter has been decided and the companions of Heaven and Hell enter their respective place". See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 311.
427. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 514; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40; and al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, al-Mufradāt, p. 25.
428. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 348 and Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 581.
429. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 514-515; Ibn Kathīr, Tiflīsī and Ibn al-Jawzī give exclusively “death” for the meaning of amr in the above verse, see Tafsīr, vol. 4, p. 331; Wujūh, p. 31; Qurrah, p. 64; and Nuzhah, p. 174. Other interpretations of amr Allāh in this verse are: "the punishment of disbelievers in Hell", and "Allah's assisting His religion and Prophet" and "conquering the disbelievers"; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 237.
430. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 233; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40.
431. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 234; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 31-32; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40. Al-T.abarsī mentions kufr as the meaning of amr in this verse, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 309.
432. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 515; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 31. Ibn al-Jawzī and al-Dāmaghānī mention the meaning of amr as sha’n (affair, case), see Qurrah, p. 64, and Qāmūs, p. 41, whereas in Nuzhah Ibn al-Jawzī mentions الشَّأْنُ وَاْلحَال (affair and condition), see Nuzhah, p. 175.
433. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32. It is said that the term amr in verse 42 indicates the victory of Muslims in the battle of Badr, whereas in verse 44 it indicates the continuation of victory; however, it is also said that the repetition of amr is for emphasis; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 547.
434. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 232; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32.
435. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 534, and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 16.
436. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 2322-2323; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 97; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 174; idem, Qurrah, p. 63; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 39; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32. This interpretation is that of Ibn ‘Abbās; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 185.
437. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 242; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 523; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 64; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 32.
438. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; and idem, Qurrah, p. 65. The expression فَمَاذَا تَأْمُرُوْن could be expressed by the nobles among themselves, by them to the Pharaoh, or by him to them; see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 461.
439. Al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 546; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 37; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175, and idem, Qurrah, p. 65.
440. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 175; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41. Al-T.abarsī does not interpret amr here as "drowning" but as "punishment"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 164.
441. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 40.
442. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 176; idem, Qurrah, p. 65; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 41.
443. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 405; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 10, pp. 232-233.
444. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 519; idem, Tafsīr, p. 471; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 117; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 309; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 161; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 223-224; and al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243.
445. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 519. Al-Qurt.ubī mentions four variant readings of ka’ayyin based on dialects: (1) كَائِن which is the reading of Ibn Kathīr; it is originally كَـيْءٍ with the transformation of letter yā’ into alif; (2) كَـئِنْ which is the drop of the alif in كائِن which is the reading of Ibn Muh.ays.in; (3) كَـاءٍ which is also the reading of Ibn Muh.ays.in; (4) كَأَيـِّنْ which is the original reading. Apart from these four variant readings, al-Qurt.ubī also mentions another but unidentified reading, namely, كَيْـئِنْ . See al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, pp. 228-229.
446. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 520. This is also the view of al-Zarkashī, see al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 331-332.
447. See al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 65; and Ma‘ānī al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 23. According to al-Suyūt.ī, quoting al-Rāghib al-As.bahānī, the particle kayfa in the above verse means tawbīkh (reproach), see al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 224-225; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 2, p. 196. Al-T.abarsī mentions both tawbikh and ta‘ajjub with his explanation, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 70.
448. Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 159-160.
449. See al-Zarkashi, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 331.
450. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 521. C. Macartney (ed.), Dīwān, p. 248. Ibn Qutaybah does not give an example from the Qur’ān, because, as stated by al-Suyūt.ī, there is no sawā’ in the Qur’ān meaning "except", see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 199.
451. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 521; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 20; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 857; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 14. This is one of the four interpretations of makānan suwan given by A.Y. Ali. The other three are: (1) "a place equaly convenient to both sides"; (2) "an open level plain, where the people can collect with ease"; and (3) "a place where both sides shall have even chances", namely, "a fair place" as Palmer translates it. Although he states that all these four interpretatiosns are possible meanings, he adopts the last which he considers more comprehensive and includes the others. See A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 801, n. 2582. According to Ibn Fāris makānan suwan means "a place where people know how to reach it and get out of it" ; see Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 112. Makānan suwan is the reading of Ibn ‘Āmir, ‘Āsim and H.amzah, whereas Ibn Kathīr, Nāfi‘, Abū ‘Amr and al-Kisā’ī read it as makānan siwan; see Ibn Mujāhid, al-Sab‘ah, p. 418.
452. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 522; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 98-99; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 732; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 355. See also al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 135.
453. Al-Suyūt.ī, al -Itqān, vol. 2, p. 182.
454. Ibid, pp. 181-182 and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 619.
455. Al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 468; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 523-524. Here Ibn Qutaybah is quoting al-Farrā’ extensively.
456. Al-Suyūt.ī also says that there is a discrepancy on the function of the definite article al in the term al-ān; some say that it is to indicate the present, others say it is only additional. See al-Itqān vol. 2, p. 161. It is noteworthy that al-ān was originally a noun, according to the grammarians of Bas.rah, whereas according to those of Kūfah, it was originally a verb. See Muh.ammad al-T.antawī, Nash’at al-Nah.w, p. 163.
457. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 142; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 249; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 54; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 611. Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 198. Instead of "how", Ibn al-Jawzī suggests matá ("when") as the meaning of anná in the above verse, see Qurrah, p. 38.
458. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 429. As examples, Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Suyūt.ī use the verse Q. 3:37, while al-Dāmaghānī uses Q. 5:75; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 91; al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and Qāmūs, p. 54. According to Ibn Fāris and al-T.abarsī, besides "wherefrom" and "whence", "how" is also the meaning of anná in the above verse, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 142; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 343.
459. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 144; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 525; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 39; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175.
460. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 321; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 175; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 120.
461. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 526, and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 112. An unidentified shaykh from Bas.rah said to al-Farrā’ that he had heard a woman asking her husband the following question: أَيْنَ ابْنُكَ وَيْلَكَ ("Where is your son, woe unto you?"), and her husband answered: وَيْكَأَنَّهُ وَرَاءَ اْلبَيْت meaning أَمَا تَرَيْنَهُ وَرَاءَ اْلبَيْت ("Don't you see him behind the house?"), see al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 312.
462. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 526. According to Qatādah, reported by al-T.abarī, there are two meanings of wayka’anna, namely, أَلَمْ تَرَ أَنَّه and أَوَلاَ يَعْلَمُ أَنَّه, as mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah above, see al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 77.
463. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 527.
464. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 258; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449. For further details on the term wayka’anna see al-Farrā, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 312-313; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, pp. 1067-8; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 268; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 318-319; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, pp. 418-419.
465. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 528, and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 33 (s.v. انن). Ibn Qutaybah does not mention examples from the Qur’ān which are Q. 27:42 and 10:12. For further details, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 217-218; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 161-162.
466. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 529; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 397. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the wordلاَتَ meaning لَيْسَ agrees with that in the Coptic language, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 63, or Nabatean language, see Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 240 and n. 3.
467. Ibid., p. 530.
468. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 531. The purpose of this additional tā’ is to balance the meter of the poem.
469. Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 176; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 468, s.v. لات. For further details, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1223; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 230-231.
470. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 532.
471. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 532; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 250. The term mah is an expression indicating reproach and prevention from talking or acting on the part of the listener; see Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 174. For more details on mahmā see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, 470; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 467.
472. Similarly, mā means man in Q. 91:5 and 6; see Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, pp. 30-31; Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 567; idem, Qurrah, p. 221; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 171.
473. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 261. Instead of Q. 92:3 above, Ibn al-Jawzī mentions Q. 2:159 as an example; see Nuzhah, p. 567; and Qurrah, p. 221.
474. See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 5-11. Moreover, the reading of Ibn Mas‘ūd says al-ladhī instead of mā, see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1612.
475. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 567; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 140. Al-Tha‘ālibī mentions a variant expression of the people of Makkah when they heard the thunder, namely, Subh.āna mā sabbah.at lahu ’l-ra‘d ("Glory to Whom the thunder has glorified"). Instead of al-ladhī, he interprets man as the meaning of mā in the above expression; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244. On hearing the thunder the Prophet used to say Subh.āna man yusabbih.u al-ra‘du bih.amdih ("Glory to Whom the thunder is glorifying with its praising"), whereas ‘Alī and Ibn ‘Abbās said respectively Subh.āna man sabbah.ta lahu and Subh.āna ’l-ladhī sabbah.ta lahu which have the same meaning; see al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 686; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 283.
476. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 533; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 270. Al-T.abarī mentions the two meanings of mā in the above verse, namely, man and mā mas.darīyah, see Jāmi‘, vol. 30, p. 140. Pickthall follows the first, while A.Y. Ali follows the second in their respective translations. Asad follows the second, but says in the footnote that literally it means the first.
477. Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 195-197. However, according to al-Zamakhsharī, the function of ma in the above verse is for emphasis, as it means h.aqqan ("truly") and al-bāttah ("definitely"), see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 61.
478. For further details, see Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 195-197; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 260-262; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 565-567; idem, Qurrah, pp. 220-221; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 171-2; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 242-244.
479. Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 261.
480. A.Y. Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 1688.
481. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1579; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 404; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 243.
482. M.M. Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 686.
483. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 237; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 438.
484. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 566; and idem, Qurrah, p. 221.
485. See H. Moch. Anwar, Tarjamah Matan Alfiyah [Ibn Mālik] (N.p.: Pt. Alma‘arif, 1981), p. 94.
486. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 534; and al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 11. Lane translates يَفْعَلُوْن وَمَا كَادُوْا in the above verse as "and they were not near to doing (it)"; see Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
487. According to al-Qurt.ubī, kāda can be followed by an in Arabic language except in the Qur’ān, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 222.
488. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 534; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 446; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 342. According to al-Qurt.ubī, kāda without an in the above poem would be better, because an indicates the future, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 1, p. 222. Ibn Mālik asserts that kāda should not be followed by an, although it does occur rarely, see Anwar, Matan Alfiyyah, pp. 94-95.
489. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 534-535. See also Macartney, ed., Shi‘r Dhī ’l-Rummah, p. 392.
490. See al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 11.
491. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 215; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 382, s.v. .كود
492. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 145.
493. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 779 and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 431. Al-Suyūt.ī quotes the view of Ibn ‘Abbās who says that every kāda, akādu, or yakādu in the Qur’ān means the action does not take place. See al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 215-216.
494. I am choosing Rodwell's translation of the verse in question, as it agrees with al-Suyūt.ī's interpretation; see J.M. Rodwell, The Koran (London: J.M. Dent & Son Ltd, 1976), p. 447. Asad and ‘Ali translate it as "he can hardly see it", whereas Dawood and Pickthall translate it as "he can scarcely see it" and "he scarce can see it" respectively.
495. This is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 67, and al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 955. Al-Farrā’ and al-T.abarsī mention two views: the first is similar to that of Abū ‘Ubaydah and al-Zamakhsharī above; the second is that the verse in question means "he sees it tardily" according to al-Farrā’, and "with difficulty" according to al-T.abarsī; see al-Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 255, and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 146. It is like the expression لَمْ يَكَدْ يَقُوْم “he hardly (scarcely, or tardily) rose" when one has risen after difficulty; see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
496. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 215.
497. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 216; al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, p. 12; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 97. See also Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636.
498. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 216. For further details on kāda, see al-Murtad.á, al-Amālī, vol. 2, pp. 11-14; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 7, p. 2636; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, pp. 382-385 (s.v. كود and كيد).
499. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 536. See also al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 185-186.
500 . Al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 242. See also Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 145-146; and al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 637-638. For further details on bal see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 242-244.
501. It is, as stated by Ibn al-Anbārī, a question of what is unknown to the questioner in order to know and remove doubt, for example, هَلْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله ("Did ‘Abd Allah stand up?" See al-Ad.dād, p. 191.
502. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 538; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 302; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 623; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 477.
503. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 538; idem, Tafsīr, p. 502; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 279; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, pp. 118-119; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 213; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 4, p. 1558; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 406; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 433; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 191-192; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 301-302; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 239; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 253.
504. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 538-539; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 387; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 433; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 301; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, 624; idem, Qurrah, p. 240; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 254; and Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 193.
505. This is one of the meanings of alā. Its other meanings are: (1) interjection to emphasise the statement, such as "behold", "verily", as in أَلَا إِنَّهُمْ هُمُ السُّفَهَاءُ (البقرة: ١٣) “Behold, they are indeed the foolish..." (Q. 2:13); (2) interjection indicating alertness, such as "oh", as in أَلَا يَا صَاحِ قُمْ ("Oh, you who are waking up, stand up!"); and (3) interjection indicating strong demand, as in أَلاَ تَتُوْبُ وَ تَرْتَدُّ عَنْ غَيِّك "Hey, will you repent and stop doing transgression?", see al-Munjid, p. 15 (s.v. الا).
506. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah. p. 625; idem, Qurrah. p. 240; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 476; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 302.
507. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 625; and idem, Qurrah, p. 241. Al-T.abarsī mentions three interpretations of the above verse, as follows: (1) It indicates the vastness of Hell, that if it were asked whether it is already full, if it could talk, it would answer that it is not yet full and is still vast enough for more people to enter; (2) Allah creates a means with which Hell will answer when it is asked by Allah; and (3) The question is addressed to the keepers of Hell; they answer that it is already full, to indicate Allah's promise to fill it. See Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, pp. 147-148.
508. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 540; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 301; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 163; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 141; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 532; and idem, Qurrah, p. 209. According to Ibn ‘Abbās, the word لَوْ لَا meaning هَلَّاis the language of the Quraysh, as in Q. 24:13, see Ibn ‘Abbās, Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 58, and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qabā’il, p. 206.
509. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; idem, Tafsīr, p. 235; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 346; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 716; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 163. According to al-Tha‘ālibī, mā in law mā is either additional or s.ilah, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243.
510. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 533; idem, Qurrah, p. 209; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 239-240. Ibn Fāris mentions two meanings of law lā in the above verse, hallā and lam, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164.
511. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 541; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 533; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164. The jumhūr of the commentators, however, do not agree with this interpretation. They say that law lā in the above verse indicates reproach for disbelieving before the coming of punishment. This is supported by Ubayy's variant reading fahallā instead of falaw lā in the above verse; see al-S.uyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 240. Al-Zamakhsharī mentions hallā as the interpretation of law lā, whereas al-T.abarsī mentions both lam and hallā; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 598; and Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 134.
512. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1226; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 234. Instead of the above verse, Yah.yá ibn Sallām, Tiflīsī and al-Dāmaghānī give other examples, among which is Q. 62:3. Al-Tha‘ālibī and Ibn Fāris assert that lammā means lam only if it indicates the future, as in the above example; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 164.
513. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 756; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 143; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 422; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 235. Ibn Qutaybah mentions a variant reading of lammā, which is lamā. The word lamā is the combination of la (which acts as emphasis) and mā which is s.ilah that can be dropped. The above verse, then, based on this reading means وَ إِنْ كُلُّ ذَلِكَ لَمَا مَتَاعُ اْلحَيَاةِ الُّدُّنْيَا "Verily, all of them are a provision of the life of the world." We notice here that in is light inna (meaning "verily"). See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; see also Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 46; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1326.
514. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 542; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 143; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 422; and Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 257. Al-Tha‘ālibī and Ibn Fāris assert that lammā can mean h.īna only if it indicates the past, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243 and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 165. Al-Suyūt.ī states that apart from the occurrence in the past, there should also be two clauses, the validity of one depends on the other, as in فَلَمَّا نَجَّاكُمْ إِلَى الْبَرِّ أَعْرَضْتُمْ (الإسراء: ٦٧) "... but when He brought you safe to land, ye turned away, ..." (Q. 17:67), see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 234.
515. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543. Ibn Qutaybah does not mention any example from the Qur’ān, such as قَالُوا لَبِثْنَا يَوْمًا أَوْ بَعْضَ يَوْمٍ (المؤمنون: ١١٣) "They will answer: ‘We have spent there a day, or part of a day;..’" (Q. 23:113, Asad). See al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 612. Ibn Fāris explains the distinction between the expression أَ زَيْدٌ عِنْدَكَ أَوْ بَكْر ("Is Zayd with you or Bakr?"), and أَ زَيْدٌ عِنْدَك أَمْ عَمْرو “Is Zayd with you or [rather] ‘Amr?". In the first expression the questioner is in doubt whether one of the two persons is with us; the answer will be yes or no. In the second expression the questioner knows that one of the two persons is with us, but he wonders whether it is Zayd or ‘Amr; the answer will be one of the two, Zayd or ‘Amr. See al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127.
516. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 259; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 1209; idem, Qurrah, p. 41; al-Dāmaghānī cites Q. 5:89 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 56.
517. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 543; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 222; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 415; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 38-39; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 109-10; idem, Qurrah, p. 42; Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 258; and al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241, citing Q. 76:24 as an example.
518. See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 362.
519. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 543-544; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 175; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 239;Yah.yá ibn Sallām, al-Tas.ārīf, p. 258; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 14, p. 54; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, vol. 2, p. 241; and al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 56; Ibn al-Jawzī cites the view of Abū Zakariyyā who says that the function of aw in this verse is to indicate obscurity (لِلْإِبْهَام), see Nuzhah, p. 110. It means that the exact number is known by Allah, but He made it secret when He added aw yazīdūn (or more), see Qurrah, p. 42. Ibn Fāris mentions three interpretations of aw in the above verse: wa, bal, and ibāh.ah (permission), namely, if someone says that the number is one hundred thousand, he is right, and if the other says even more than that, he is also right, see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 127. Al-T.abarsī mentions four meanings, namely, al-ibhām, al-takhyīr, wa, and bal. For further details, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 459. According to Ibn ‘Abbās the meaning of aw in the above verses is bal in the language of Kindah tribe, see Gharīb al-Qur’ān, p. 62 and Abū ‘Ubayd ibn Sallām, Lughāt al-Qaba’il, p. 238.
520. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 543-544 and idem, Tafsīr, p. 375. It is also the view of Abū ‘Ubaydah, that the particle aw in this poem means wa, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 148.
521. See Muh.ammad al-T.ant.āwī, Nash’at al-Nah.w, p. 163.
522. See Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 128.
523. See ibid., pp. 128-129. For more details, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 209-214.
524. See ibid., pp. 127-128.
525. According to Ibn Fāris, aw in this poem means illā an, so that it means "unless we die", instead of "till we die". See ibid., p. 128.
526. See Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241. For more details on aw, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 175-178; idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 612-614; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 54-55; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 122-123.
527. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 546; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 105; and idem, Qurrah, p. 37. Al-Dāmaghānī cites this verse saying that am in this verse means istifhām (question), see Qāmūs, p. 37.
528. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 546; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 130; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 105-106; and idem, Qurrah, p. 38. This is the view of Sībawayh, according to al-Tha‘ālibī, citing Q. 2:108 as an example, see Fiqh al-Lughah, p.241. Al-T.abarsī inteprets am in this verse as bal, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 2, p. 61.
529. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 546-547. According to Abū ‘Ubaydah, however, am in this verse is synonymous with the conjunctions wa and bal; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 130.
530. Al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 240-241; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 233; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 167. Ibn Fāris refers to the view of al-Farrā’ who says that the Arabs put bal in the sense of am and vice versa if the sentence starts with a question, see Fiqh al-Lughah, pp. 125-126; al-Dāmaghānī and Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 13:33 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 106; and Qurrah, p. 38.
531. This is the view of Abū ‘Ubydah, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 278.
532. This is the view of Abū Zayd, see Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 126, whereas according to Abū ‘Ubaydah, it means bal, see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 204. For further details on the particle am, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 180-186; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 163-165; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 598-603.
533. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 548; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 243; and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 165.
534. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 631-632; and idem, Qurrah, p. 245
535 . See al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 374; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 439.
536. See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 211; Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, p. 211; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 2, p. 211; and al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 1, p. 132; see also al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 229; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 170.
537. Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 166.
538. Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 215-216; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 166; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 277; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 207; and al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān., pt. 1, p. 133. As a unit, the Qur’ān mentions the allegation of the infidels in one sūrah, and rejects the allegation in the other. For example, وَقَالُوا يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِي نُزِّلَ عَلَيْهِ الذِّكْرُ إِنَّكَ لَمَجْنُونٌ (الحجر: ٦) "And yet, they [who deny the truth] say: 'O thou unto whom this reminder has [allegedly] been bestowed from on high: verily, thou art mad!'" (Q. 15:6, Asad), is rejected with مَا أَنْتَ بِنِعْمَةِ رَبِّكَ بِمَجْنُونٍ (القلم: ٢) “Thou art not, by thy Sustainer's grace, a madman!" (Q. 68:2, Asad). See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 229. However, al-Farrā’ states that it is also correct to read لَأُ قْسِمُ بِيَوْمِ اْلقِيَامَة, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 207. In this case, la is what is called by Ibn Jinnī لاَمُ اْلإبْتِدَاء (lām used for starting a sentence), see al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 394. For more details on لاَ, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 351-361.
539. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 549; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 616. Abū ‘Ubaydah says that the meaning of awlā is تَوَعُّد (threat), see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 278.
540. For further details, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 179; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 616-617.
541. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 550; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 2, p. 412. Instead of an yaghd.abū it is also written an taghd.abā, see idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 63. However, both are translated as al-ghad.ab, since it is the object (maf‘ūl) of the verb jaramat. According to Sībawayh, Khalīl, Abū ‘Ubaydah and Ibn Fāris in his work al-S.āh.ibī, the term jaramat means ah.aqqat, so that the verse means "... it was right that the Fazārah tribe would be angry ...", while according to al-Farrā‘, Ibn Qutaybah and Ibn Fāris in his other work, Mayāqīs, it means kasabat, namely, the killing caused the Fazārah tribe to be angry (كَسَبَتْهُمُ اْْلغََضَب). See Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 358; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 150; idem, Maqāyīs, vol. 1, p. 446; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 9; and Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 550. However, both meanings are correct, according to Ibn al-Sayyid, although he leans to al-Farrā’s view, when he gives the meaning of the second part of the poem as كَسَبَتْ فَزَارَةُ اْلغَضَبَ عَلَيْكَ, as translated above. Instead of t.a‘antu it should be read t.a‘anta (you have stabbed), as the poet in the preceding line addressed the assassin, yā Karzu ("O Kurz"). For further details, see Ibn al-Sayyid, al-Iqt.idāb (Beirut: N.p., 1901), p. 313, quoted in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 550-551, nn. 3 and 4.
542. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 551. Al-Farrā’ said that he heard the Arabs saying فُلانٌ جَرِيْمَةُ أَهْلِهِ meaning كَاسِبُ أَهْلِه “a provider for his family", and خَرَجَ يَجْرِمُهُمْ meaning خَرَجَ يَكْسِبُ لَهُمْ “he went out to provide for them". See Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 299. The word commonly used for "crime" is jarīmah.
543. See al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 362-363, and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 231.
544. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 217; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 53; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 129-130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. Yah.yá ibn Sallām cites also many other examples, such as Q. 67: 9 and 20, see al-Tas.ārīf, pp. 195-196. See also al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 603-604 with different examples.
545. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 220; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 53; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 130; and idem, Qurrah, p. 52. This is the view of Qut.rub, according to al-Suyūt.ī, citing Q. 87:9 as an example; see Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 605-606. According to al-Farrā’, in can mean qad if it is accompanied with the particle la or alā, as in the above example, and in the expressions such as إِنْ قَامَ لَعَبْدُ الله and أَلَا إِنْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله meaning قَدْ قَامَ عَبْدُ الله , see Ibn al-Anbārī, al-Ad.dād, pp. 189-190. Al-T.abarsī's interpretation of in in the verse in question is innahu, see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 446.
546. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 552; idem, Garīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, pp. 211-212; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 2, p. 219; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 52; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 35-36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 130-131; and idem, Qurrah, p. 53. See also al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 605 with the example from Q. 3:139 and 48:27.
547. See Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 332-333.
548. See Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 36; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 129; idem, Qurrah, p. 52; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 167-168.
549. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 605. The particle mā in this verse means "not". According to Ibn al-Anbārī it is not correct to interpret فِيمَا إِنْ مَكَّنَّاكُمْ فِيهِ as فِيْ الَّذِيْ قَدْ مَكَنَّاكُمْ فِيْهِ in which mā means al-ladhī (which), and in means qad in the above verse, but rather as فَيْ الَّذِيْ مَا مَكَنَّاكُمْ فِيْهِ and فِيْ الَّذِيْ لَمْ نُمَكِّنْكُمْ فِيْهِ in which mā means al-ladhī, and in means mā (not). For further details, see al-Ad.dād, pp. 189-190, and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 215-222. This is also the view of al-Farrā’, see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 56.
550. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 169; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 604. For further details on in, see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, pp. 106-108.
551. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 554.
552. See Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 475.
553. See al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 306; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269.
554. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 554.
555. Al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269. According to Ibn Manz.ūr, Ibn al-Sikkīt's view is hā’iyā and hā’unna instead of respectively hā’uma and hā’umna for the feminine dual and plural; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 482. It is said that hā’um indicates activity and pleasure. When a Bedouin called the Prophet loudly, he answered with a long hā’um; see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 18, p. 269. For further details on ha see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 253 and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 482, s.v.ها. Ibn Fāris's dealing with hā is similar to that of Ibn Qutaybah, almost verbatim, see, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 175.
556. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 555; however, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, it is also said hātiyā for the dual masculine as well as feminine of the term hāt, see Lisān, vol. 2, p. 107. Ibn Fāris's reliance on Ibn Qutaybah's Ta’wīl is also apparent in dealing with the term hāt, see al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 175-176.
557. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 556; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, pp. 147-148; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 130; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2143-2144
558. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 557; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 208; al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 129 and vol. 14, p. 151; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, p. 617; al-T.abarī, Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 59; and al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 432 and vol. 2, p. 1124.
559. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 557; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 254; Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 12, pp. 617-618; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 7, p. 129. According to al-Suyūt.ī, the well-known origin of allāhumma is yā Allāhu in which yā is dropped and replaced with mma (stressed mim) after Allāh, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 163.
560. See Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 6, p. 60.
561. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 558. This is the view of Sībawayh and others, such as al-Akhfash and al-Zajjāj, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 231 (s.v..كلا). According to them there is no other meaning of kallā in the Qur’ān, so that a group of them say that whenever kallā is mentioned in a sūrah in the Qur’ān, it indicates that it belongs to the Meccan sūrahs. This is because it signifies warning and threat, most of which were revealed in Mecca (Makkah) since wickedness mostly occurred in that city. Sībawayh and the majority of the philologists also believe that kallā is a simple word, whereas according to Tha‘lab, it consists of ka (meaning "like") and lā (meaning "not"); the lā is doubled with tashdīd to emphasise the new meaning and to repel the assumption that the basic meanings of the two words still remain. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 221.
562. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 558; and Al-Zamakhsharī, Al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1556.
563. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah pp. 511-513. Among those who interpreted kallā as synonymous to h.aqqan was al-Kisā’ī, whereas according to Abū H.ātim the term means alā ("know!"); see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 221-222; and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 11, pp. 147-148. Al-Kisā’ī makes a distinction between lā and kallā, as follows: Lā indicates a simple negation, whereas kallā indicates negating something, but at the same time affirms something else. For example, somebody said to you, "You have eaten something," and you said, "Lā" (similar to the Indonesian "tidak"), it means you denied the occurrence of the action of eating anything. But if another person said to you, "You have eaten a date," and you said, "Kallā" (similar to the Indonesian "bukan"), because you denied eating a date, but affirmed eating something else, such as honey; see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 231, (s.v. كلا ).
564. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 559; al-Zamkahsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1596; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 472. This is the interpretation of ruwaydan in this verse according to Qatādah, whereas according to Ibn ‘Abbās it means qarīban (shortly); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 12.
565. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 559. Ibn Qutaybah as well as Ibn Fāris misquoted the poem when they mentioned مِثْلُ مَنْ which is incorrect; see ibid. and Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 153 and Maqāyīs, vol. 2, p. 458. The correct word is ثَمِلٌ as quoted by Ibn Manz.ūr as well as al-Qurt.ubī, and as translated above. For further details on ruwaydan, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 189 (s.v. رود); see also al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 20, p. 12.
566. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 560; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 76.
567. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 159; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 75.
568. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 561; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 258-259; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449. Al-T.abarsī interprets al-wayl in both verses as "disaster"; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, pp. 41 and 42.
569. For further details, see Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 11, pp. 737-740 (s.v. ويل); and al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 8.
570. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 5621; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 4, pp. 601-602 (s.v. عمر).
571 . See al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 3, p. 342. Al-Zamakhsharī cites two interpretations: the first is as mentioned above, and the second is that the expression la‘amruk in the above verse was said by the angels to Prophet Lot; see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, pp. 723-724. The angels' expression was most probably a du‘ā’, meaning "may Allah prolong your life span", since it is inconceivable that they would swear other than by Allah. Asad, using the second interpretation given by al-Zamakhsharī, translates the verse in question as follows: "[But the angels spoke thus:] 'As thou livest, [O Prophet Lot, they will not listen to thee:] behold, in their delirium [of lust] they are but blindly stumbling to and fro!'"; see M. Asad, The Message, p. 390.
572. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 562. According to Ibn al-H.ājib, the term should also be preceded by a question, since iy means "yes"; see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 180; see also idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 3, p. 449.
573. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 562. Instead of balá, as asserted by Ibn Qutaybah, according to Ibn Fāris, al-Qurt.ubī, and al-Suyūt.ī, the meaning of iy is na‘am (yes). See al-S.āh.ibī, p. 129; al-Jāmi‘, vol. 8, p. 351; and al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 180. Although both mean "yes", they are used differently. Balá is used in two places: (a) to reject a negative statement, as in زَعَمَ الَّذِينَ كَفَرُوا أَنْ لَنْ يُبْعَثُوا قُلْ بَلَى وَرَبِّي لَتُبْعَثُنَّ (التغابن: ٧) “They who are bent on denying the truth claim that they will never be raised from the dead! Say: 'Yea, by my Sustainer! Most surely will you be raised from the dead, ...'" (Q. 64:7, Asad); (b) to invalidate the negation in the interrogative sentence; the question is either real (h.aqīqī), reproach (tawbīkh), or establishment (taqrīr). It is like doch in German and si in French. Their respective examples are as follows: أَلَيْسَ زَيْدٌ بِقَائِمٍ؟ بَلىَ "Is not Zayd standing? Yes, he is"; أَيَحْسَبُ الْإِنْسَانُ أَلَّنْ نَجْمَعَ عِظَامَهُ. بَلَى (القيامة: ٣-٤) "Does man think that We cannot [resurrect him and] bring his bones together again? Yea, indeed, ..." (Q. 75:3-4, Asad); and أَلَسْتُ بِرَبِّكُمْ قَالُوا بَلَى (الأعراف: ١٧٢) ".... 'Am I not your Sustainer?' - to which they answer: 'Yea, indeed, ...'" (Q. 7:172, Asad). Should they say na‘am instead of balá in the last example, they would have become disbelievers, because na‘am in this case would mean "Yes, You are not our Sustainer." This is the view of Ibn ‘Abbās and others. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 186-187. Since Q. 10:53 quoted above is the only verse in which iy is used, and since this verse does not belong to any of the above categories, the word iy in the above verse, in its strict sense, in my view, should mean na‘am instead of balá. Why, then, did not Ibn Qutaybah mention na‘am as the only meaning of iy instead of balá, or at least, include it? Probably because, as we have seen, na‘am is also used to confirm a negative statement so that it means "no", whereas balá always means "yes", whether in confirming an affirmative statement or in negating a negative statement. Moreover, iy meaning balá is mentioned before an oath only as a ilah of it to emphasise the truth of the statement, in this case, that Allah would punish the idolaters in the Hereafter for their wrong-doings as mentioned in the previous verse (Q. 10:52). This may indicate Ibn Qutaybah's deep understanding of the subject, and this is one of his contributions in the Qur’ānic exegesis.
574. See al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 588.
575. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 563; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 169; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 13, p. 383. According to al-Zamakhsharī, ladunnī can also be read ladunī and ladnī, see al-Kashshāf, vol. 1, p. 810.
576. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 563. For further details on ladun, ladā and ‘inda, see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 206-207.
577. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 571; see also al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 233. Instead of إِلىَ مَكَان مَعَ, Ibn Qutaybah in his Adab al-Kātib uses إِلىَ بِمَعْنىَ مَعَ, see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544. Apparently, there is no difference between the two expressions, although the latter is used by later writers. However, out of fifteen cases in his Ta’wīl, Ibn Qutaybah only once used بِمَعْنىَ , whereas in his Adab al-Kātib he used both fifteen times.
578. Asad and Pickthall translate مَعَ الله respectively as "in God's cause" and "in the cause of Allah"; see Asad, The Message, p. 75 and Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 55. These translations are probably based on the interpretation of al-H.asan al-Bas.rrī who says that إِلىَ الله means فِيْ السَّبِيْلِ إِلىَ الله; see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 4, p. 97. Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation is based on what he thinks is Abū ‘Ubaydah's interpretation; see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544. But Abū ‘Ubaydah states that مَنْ أَنْصَارِ ْإِلىَ الله means مَنْ أَعْوَانِي فِيْ ذَاتِ الله, so that, instead of ma‘a, the term ilá here means fī; see Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 94. It is possible that Ibn Qutaybah means al-Farrā’ rather than Abū ‘Ubaydah, as al-Farrā’ accepts the interpretation of ilá as ma‘a in the above verse as a good one (وَجْهٌ حَسَن); see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 218. Moreover, this is also the interpretation of the grammarians of Kūfah to which al-Farrā’ is said to belong or to lean; see al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 162. In addition, this interpretation has been adopted by al-Tha‘ālibī, al-Qayrawānī, al-Dāmaghānī, Tiflīsī, Ibn al-Jawzī and Ibn Fāris; see Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 241; I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 1, p. 806; Qāmūs, pp. 36-37; Wujūh, pp. 26-27; Nuzhah, p. 103; Qurrah, p. 40; and al-S.āh.ibī, p. 132.
579. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 571; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 218; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 3, p. 169 (s.v. ذود).
580. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 536-537.
581. Al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 162. According to Tiflīsī, al-Dāmaghānī, and Ibn al-Jawzī, the particle ilá here means li (for); see Wujūh, p. 27; Qāmūs, p. 37; Nuzhah, p. 103; and Qurrah, p. 40.
582. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540.
583. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538; al-Qayrawānī, I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 142; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183. According to al-Qurt.ubī, this is the view of al-Zajjāj and an unidentified group of grammarians. See al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 63.
584. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 568; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538; Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 3, p. 407; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 208-209; and [al-Mufad.d.al al-D.abbī], al-Mufd.d.alīyāt, p. 392. Instead of bas.īr in the poem, al-Qurt.ubī uses khabīr (an expert), see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 63.
585. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 42; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 209-210; and idem, Qurrah, p. 82. This is the interpretation of al-Kalbī and al-H.asan adopted by Ibn Qutaybah. Another interpretation, however, is that of Muqātil, who says that بِاْلحَقّ means بِاْلأَمْرِ اْلحَقّ. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 16, p. 147.
586. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 1, p. 143; here al-Qurt.ubī is quoting Ibn Qutaybah with the expression qālahu ’l-Qutabī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 209; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 184. Besides Ibn Qutaybah's interpretation, al-Qurt.ubī and al-T.abarsī also mention the view of al-Farrā’ who says that the expression yashrabu bihā and yashrabuhā have the same meaning; it is like the expression إِنَّهُ لَيَتَكَلَّمُ بِكَلامٍ حَسَنٍ ("Verily he speaks with a good speech") and يَتَكَلَّمُ كَلامًا حَسَنًا ("he speaks a good speech"). It is said that bi in this verse is additional; see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126; Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 407; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 215. This view is also mentioned by Ibn Qutaybah, see Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 2, pp. 105-106. See also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 487. In rejecting the above views Ibn Taymiyyah contends that if bi is additional in this verse, the verse would mean that the drinker may drink the drink without quenching his thirst. On the other hand, if it is said that bi is in the sense of min, there would not be any indication that the drinker is quenching his thirst. Therefore, according to Ibn Taymiyyah, it is said that the bi in yashrabu bihā indicates that the quenching of the drinker's thirst occurs with this special drink. See Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmū‘ Fatāwā ibn Taymiyyah, ed. ‘Abd al-Rah.mān ibn Muh.ammad al-H.anbalī (Riyadh: N.p., 1382 A.H.), 1st ed., vol. 20, p. 474. This is also the view of the effective investigators (al-muh.aqqiqūn) according to al-Zarkashī. He states that the meaning of the preposition bi in the verse in question is to indicate inclusion (tad.mīn) of the meaning of yarwī (he quenches the thirst) in the verb yashrabu (he drinks). As the verb yashrabu is itself a transitive verb, it does not need the preposition bi except for a purpose. This purpose is to include the quenching of the thirst in its meaning. Therefore, the verb yashrabu bi includes both literal and metaphorical meanings; see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 3, p. 338. Besides the above interpretations al-Qayrawānī also mentions another interpretation, namely, the preposition bi indicates the location of the fountain, and the term ‘aynan means mā’ ‘ayn (water of a fountain), so that the verse in question means "Water of a fountain where the servants of God shall drink"; see I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 2, p. 672.
587. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543; and al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 5, p. 407; see also Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 1, p. 487. Ibn al-Sayyid says that there are two views concerning the meaning of the word matá in this poem, min (from) and wasat. (amidst), see al-Iqtid.āb. p. 447, quoted by A. S.aqr in Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 575, n. 3. Nūrah Shamlān, in her work on the life and poems of Abū Dhu’ayb, chooses the first view, whereas Ibn Fāris chooses the second; see Shamlān, Abū Dhu’ayb al-Hudhalī: H.ayātuh wa Shi‘ruh (Riyadh: ‘Imādah Shu’ūn al-Maktabāt, Riyadh University, 1400/1980), p. 104 and Ibn Fāris, Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 296. It is said, however, that matá in the language of the al-Hudhayl tribe means fī (in, at); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 19, p. 126, n. 1; and al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 215, n. 3.
588. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 543. It is written ilá bima‘ná fī which is a misprint, and should be bi instead of ilá as has been corrected here.
589. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 82; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183.
590. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
591. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 210; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183.
592. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
593. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 211; idem, Qurrah, p. 83; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183. For further details on bi and its meanings, see al-Suyūt.ī, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, pp. 634-637.
594. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 573; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 545; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 3, p. 246; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 283; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 442; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. According to Ibn Manz.ūr the particle ‘alá in the above verse means min as well as ‘an; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 89. Al-Dāmaghānī gives Q. 16:9 as an example: it reads وَعَلىَ اللهِ قَصْدُ السَّبِيْل “It is from Allah the direction of the right path."; see Qāmūs, p. 332.
595. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, pp. 573 and 380, and idem, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 545-546. Al-Qurt.ubī also cites this poem, but he says that عَلىَ أَقْطَاِرهَا means فِيْ أَقْطَارِهَا, rather than مِنْ أِقْطَارهَا, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, p. 359.
596. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578, and Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 83. The criminal charge meant in this verse is the accidental killing of an Egyptian by Prophet Moses. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, p. 92.
597. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 542; idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 3, pp. 703-704 (with an example from poetry); al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 187; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 442-443; and idem, Qurrah, p. 178. Al-Suyūtī goes further and says that the interpretation عَلىَ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانِ ("in the kingdom of Solomon") means فِيْ زَمَانِ مُلْكِهِ, namely, "in the time of his reign" as translated by Asad above; see al-Itqān, vol. 2, pp. 201-202. This meaning agrees with that given by al-Zajjāj who says that عَلىَ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَانِ means عَلىَ عَهْدِ مُلْكِ سُلَيْمَان ("at the time of Solomon's reign"); see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 42. Al-T.abarsī mentions two interpretations: "against the kingdom of Solomon" as translated by Pickthall, and "in the time of Solomon's reign" mentioned above; see Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 1, p. 174.
598. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145.
599. See al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 333. Al-Suyūt.ī cites a different example, namely, وَتَوَكَّلْ عَلَى الْحَيِّ الَّذِي لَا يَمُوتُ (الفرقان: ٥٨) "Hence, place thy trust in the Living One who dies not,..." (Q. 25:58, Asad), and calls the substituted particle بَاءُ اْلإسْتِعَانَة (the particle bi used for seeking help); see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 202.
600. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 545.
601. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 201; see also al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 285.
602. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 2, p. 242.
603. Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 27; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 69
604. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 537; and Ibn Manz.ūr, Lisān, vol. 15, p. 88. Lane translates the expression رَمَيْتُ عَلىَ اْلقَوْس as رَمَيْتُ بِالْقَوْس ("I shot with the bow") rather than عَنِ اْلقَوْس ("from the bow"); see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2145.
605. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540. For further details on ‘alá see Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, pp. 2144-2145.
606. However, according to Ibn Manz.ūr, it is correctt to say رَمَيْتُ عَلىَ اْلقَوْس, but not بِالْقَوْس ; see Lisān, vol. 15, p. 88.
607. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 183; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
608. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 541; C.J. Lyall, ed., The Mufad.d.aliyyāt, p. 160; and Ibn Fāris, Mayāqīs, vol. 2, p. 179. According to Ibn Fāris, the word lāh is the name of Allah; with the addition of the definite article al, it makes the word Allāh; see Maqāyīs, vol. 5, p. 227. Lane translated lāh as lillāhi darru, as translated above; see Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
609. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 439; idem, Qurrah, p. 176; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 203; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 5, p. 2164.
610. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 542.
611. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 287; and al-Suyūt.ī al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 203.
612. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 6, pp. 181-182.
613. See Asad, The Message, pp. 144 and 151; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, pp. 103 and 107; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, pp. 245 and 254.
614. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 542-543.
615. Idem, Gharīb al-H.adīth, vol. 1, p. 358; and Lane Lexicon, pt 4, p.475 (s.v. سوم).
616. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 567; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 536; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 1, p. 14 and vol. 2, p. 23; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 303; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 21; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, pp. 190-191; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 367; al-Tha‘ālibī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 211; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 230; and Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467. Ibn Fāris mentions the reason for the use of fī in the above verse. He says it is because the trunks for the crucified persons are like graves for the buried ones; see al-S.āh.ibī, p. 158. According to al-Farrā’فِيْ جُذُوْعِ النَّخْـل means that the crucifixion is done by putting the persons to be crucified on lengthwise on the tree trunks, whereas عَلىَ جُذُوْعِ النَّخْل means that they are lifted and put on the trunks; see Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 186. Another view is that of al-Mubarrad and al-Qayrawānī that the particle fī is used to indicate that the trunks surrounded (contained) him; see al-Mubarrad, al-Kāmil, vol. 2, p. 823; and I‘rāb al-Qur’ān, pt. 3, p. 806.
617. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 539; Lane, Lexicon, pt. 6, p. 2467; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 303; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 212. Al-Dāmaghānī and Tiflīsī cite Q. 4:97 as an example, see Qāmūs, p. 367; and Wujūh, p. 230. This idiomatic phrase, according to Asad, indicates "one's inability to refute a reasonable proposition by cogent, logical counter arguments". For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 372, n. 10.
618. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 539-540 in which tunūshida is written is probably nūshida as cited above. See also al-A‘shá, Dīwān al-A‘shá, p. 55 in which yunāshadu is written rather than tunūshida or nūshida.
619. Al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 368; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 477; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 191-192.
620. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 3, pp. 25-26; Asad, The Message, p. 45; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 31; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 82.
621. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 546. Translation rendered by Tengku Jusoh, Tengku Ghani. A Critical Examination of five Poems by Imru al-Qays (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Pustaka Antara, 1990), pp. 15 and 62. This is also the view of al-As.ma‘ī according to al-Qurt.ubī, see al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 162-163. However, according to Muh.ammad Abū al-Fad.l Ibrāhīm, fī is in the sense of ma‘a in this poem, so that the verse means "thirty months apart from three years"; see M.A. Ibrāhīm, ed., Dīwān Umru’ al-Qays, 2nd ed. (Cairo: Dār al-Ma‘ārif, 1384/1964), p. 27.
622. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 191; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 367; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, pp. 230-231; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 3093, and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 212.
623. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 546.
624. Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 476; idem, Qurrah, p. 190; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, pp. 366-367; al-T.abarsī, Majma‘ al-Bayān, vol. 4, p. 213; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 302, and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 211. Tiflīsī does not quote this verse, but quotes many others, see Wujūh, p. 230.
625. For further details, see Asad, The Message, p. 434, n. 119.
626. See al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 13, pp. 162-3; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, vol. 3, p. 370; Pickthall, The Glorious Qur’ān, p. 393; and Ali, The Holy Qur’ān, p. 980. With regard to those nine signs or miracles, they are, according to Ibn ‘Abbās in one of his interpretations and Mujāhid, as follows: the rod (Q. 7:107), the radiant hand (Q. 7:108), the years of drought or shortage of water (Q. 7:130), shortage of crops (Q. 7:130), epidemics among men and beasts, locusts, lice, frogs, and the water turning to blood (Q. 7:133). Another interpretation attributed to Ibn ‘Abbās, is that he includes the split of the sea as substitute for shortage of crops which is probably included by him in the category of drought and shortage of water, as done by al-H.asan al-Bas.rī; see al-S.ābūnī, Mukhtas.ar, vol. 2, p. 403. The first interpretation was adopted by Ali, see The Holy Qur’ān, p. 378, n. 1091.
627.For further details, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 302-304.
628. See Ali, The Holy Qur’an, p. 715; and Asad, The Message, p. 430
629. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 569; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 537-8; and idem, Qurrah, p. 211. Al-Suyūt.ī cites Q. 13:25 as an example from the Qur’ān, see al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225.
630. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 544; here it is written إِلىَ بِمَعْنىَ اللَّام which is misprinted, and should be اللَّامُ بِمَعْنىَ إِلىَ. Cf. idem, Ta’wīl, p. 522 in which it is written اللَّامُ بِمَعْنىَ إِلىَ .
631. Idem, Ta’wīl, p. 572; idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 540; al-Zamakhsharī, al-Kashshāf, vol. 2, p. 1616; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 538; idem, Qurrah, p. 212; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 341; al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225; and idem, Mu‘tarak, vol. 1, p. 552. Another example cited by Ibn Qutaybah is Q. 7:43 in which هَدَانَا لْهَذَا means هَدَانَا إِلىَ هَذَا; see Adab al-Kātib, p. 544.
632. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, p. 547.
633. See Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 539; and idem, Qurrah, pp. 212-213.
634. See al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 225; and al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 341.
635. Ibn Qutaybah, Adab al-Kātib, pp. 546-547.
636. See al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 342. In fact, there are many other meanings of li mentioned by al-Zarkashī. For further details, see ibid., pp. 339-350.
637. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, p. 577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 443; al-Tha‘ālībī, Fiqh al-Lughah, p. 244; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 276; Ibn Fāris, al-S.āh.ibī, p. 172; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248.
638. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 578 and idem, Adab al-Kātib, p. 538.
639. Al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 420; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248. Ibn al-Jawzī cites Q. 12:87 and 50:19; see Nuzhah, p. 577; and Qurrah, p. 225.
640. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 574; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 60; Abū ‘Ubaydah, Majāz al-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 324; al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, p. 420; Ibn al-Jawzī, Nuzhah, pp. 576-577; idem, Qurrah, p. 224; al-Dāmaghānī, Qāmūs, p. 442; Tiflīsī, Wujūh, p. 275; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 42:45 as an example.
641. For further details on this verse, see al-Qurt.ubī, al-Jāmi‘, vol. 9, pp. 291-293. See also Asad, The Message, p. 60, n. 25.
642. Ibn Qutaybah, Ta’wīl, p. 577; al-Farrā’, Ma‘ānī ’l-Qur’ān, vol. 2, p. 370; Ibn al-Jawzī, Qurrah, p. 224; and al-Suyūt.ī, al-Itqān, vol. 2, p. 248, citing Q. 62:9 as an example. For more details on the meanings of min, see al-Zarkashī, al-Burhān, vol. 4, pp. 415-426.
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